The present study aimed to develop a feeding strategy for pregnant sows which involved the prenatal administration of a mixture of pancreatic-like fungal enzymes, such as lipase, amylase, and protease, at (1) 1–115 days of gestation (group D1) and (2) 80–115 days of gestation (group D2) and to carry out a comparison with groups of sows that were not receiving such supplementation (negative control [NC] and positive control [PC]). It was found that the administration of the enzyme supplement resulted in a significant shortening of gestation (P ≤ 0.01). The pancreatic enzymes administered to sows had a significant effect on the number of liveborn piglets and weaned piglets, which was higher compared to the control groups that did not receive supplementation respectively: D1-12.1±1.1 and 11.12±1.1; D2- 12.8±1.3 and 11.75±0.07 vs. control groups KN-10.7±1.0 and 9.62±0,95 and KP 10.9±1.2 and 10.15±1.0 (P<0.006). Significant changes in piglet growth were observed after weaning up to 70 days of age. During this period, the most favorable growth parameters were found in groups D2 (420±91g) and PC (407±103g), in which piglets were given a mixture of pancreatic enzymes (lipase, amylase, and protease) at 3 weeks of age, and significantly higher weight gain and feed intake were observed compared to groups NC (378±114g) and D1 (381±96g) (P ≤ 0.007). In contrast, insulin levels were significantly lower in groups D1 and D2, respectively 6,8 IU/ml and 6,7 IU/ml compared to groups NC (14,6 IU/ml) and PC (16,6 IU/ml) ( (P ≤ 0.01). Piglets in group D2 had a significantly better feed conversion ratio (FCR) 1.604±0.10 compared to the other dietary groups: KN– 1.986±0.14; KP– 1.704±0.11; D1 – 1.932±0.15 (P ≤ 0.03). Histological imaging confirmed significantly thicker intestinal epithelium and intestinal mesenteron in animals from groups D2 and PC (P ≤ 0.03). Animals from the groups KP, D1 and D2 receiving enzymes showed a highly significant increase in the surface area of pancreatic follicles and pancreatic surface area compared to the group without KN supplementation (P<0.01). Furthermore, significantly higher activity of the brush border enzyme lactase was observed in groups D1; D2 and PC compared, respectively 32.90±3.99; 30.00±6.83 and 29.60±29.60 to group NC – 21.80± 3.27 (P ≤ 0.01).

Disruption of the in utero environment can have dire consequences on fetal growth and development. Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) is a pathological condition by which the fetus deviates from its expected growth trajectory, resulting in low birth weight and impaired organ function. The developmental origins of health and disease (DOHaD) postulates that IUGR has lifelong consequences on offspring well-being, as human studies have established an inverse relationship between birth weight and long-term metabolic health. While these trends are apparent in epidemiological data, animal studies have been essential in defining the molecular mechanisms that contribute to this relationship. One such mechanism is cellular stress, a prominent underlying cause of the metabolic syndrome. As such, this review considers the role of oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, and inflammation in the pathogenesis of metabolic disease in IUGR offspring. In addition, we summarize how uncontrolled cellular stress can lead to programmed cell death within the metabolic organs of IUGR offspring.

The consumption of alcohol and drugs of abuse among pregnant women has experienced a significant increase in the last decades. Optimal maternal nutritional status is of great importance for proper fetal development, yet is often altered with alcohol or drugs consumption. There is a lack of information on the effects of alcohol and drugs on maternal nutritional status, so the focus of this review was to provide an overview on nutrional status of mother and fetus in abusers pregnant women. Alcohol and drugs consumption can adversely affect the quality and quantity of proper nutrient supply and energy intake, resulting in malnutrition especially of micronutrients (vitamins, omega-3, folic acid, zinc, choline, iron, copper, selenium). When maternal nutritional status is compromised by alcohol and drugs essential nutrients are not available for the fetus, this can result in suboptimal outcomes like Intrauterine Growth Restriction (IUGR) or Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD). It is critical to determine a means to resolve and reduce the physical and neurological malformations that develop in the fetus as a result of prenatal alcohol and drugs exposure combined with poor maternal nutrition. Prenatal nutrition interventions are required that may prevent or alleviate the development of such abnormalities.