A Cost-Benefit Analysis of the Coronation: A Marketing Soft-Power Tool for Commonwealth Countries in an AI-Driven Influencer Economy

1. Introduction

Globally, the Royal Family has drawn public fascination related to marriages, funerals, and scandals (Jozaghi & Jozaghi, 2024; Jozaghi & Jozaghi, 2026). For example, the death of Princess Diana drew attention and sympathy from across the globe, while recent allegations of treason against the former Prince (Andrew Mountbatten-Windsor) have drawn attention to the family (Jozaghi & Jozaghi, 2026; Thomas, 2008). Moreover, the allegation and possibility that Queen Camilla’s children (Tom Parker Bowles and Laura Lopes) could be King Charles’s biological children, and thus the legitimate heirs as they are older than Prince William, could further bring global scrutiny, speculation, and attention during the next coronation of the crown (Campbell, 2023; Antrobus, 2025; Duffy, 2025). However, no event is more fascinating than a monarch’s coronation because it is deeply rooted in centuries of history, tradition, customs, religion, regulations, culture, and democracy.

For example, Queen Elizabeth II’s coronation more than a few decades ago (1953), at the time of the introduction of black-and-white TVs, it was predicted that millions of people in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (UK) would watch the coronation (e.g., 27 million people) (BBC News, 1953). Another 10 million people in the UK were projected to view the event via neighbours’ homes, family, or friends (BBC News, 1953). At the same time, many more (e.g., 1.5 million) watched the coronation from local pubs or cinemas (BBC News, 1953). Therefore, 40 million people watched the event directly (BBC News, 1953). In contrast, millions more heard about it on the radio or read about it in newspapers and magazines, as the UK population was only 50 million at the time (BBC News, 1953). It was also projected that more than 85 million people in the U.S. alone would watch the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II, when the population was only 160 million in the United States and home TVs were still new to the market (Rotondi, 2023). It was further predicted that hundreds of millions of citizens globally would turn to TV, radio, and newspapers in many Commonwealth and non-Commonwealth countries (Rotondi, 2023).

To acknowledge and celebrate diversity and multiculturalism, King Charles III’s coronation further portrayed the King as the top official of the Church of England (e.g., Supreme Governor) and as a defender of all faiths (Jozaghi & Jozaghi, 2024). In other words, King Charles III transformed the century-old tradition by incorporating various faith leaders (e.g., Hindu, Buddhist, Muslim, Jewish, and Sikh), who acted a vital role in the ancient and sacred divine ceremony (Kirka, 2023). The coronation’s ecumenical inspiration and embracing of all cultures not only conferred but permanently intertwined the monarchy with the growing globalization of “the commonwealth as a diverse, multifaith, multilingual, multiethnic, and multicultural evolving society” (Jozaghi & Jozaghi, 2024). Moreover, King Charles III met personally with leaders of many Indigenous and Inuit peoples from across the Commonwealth to reaffirm his unwavering commitment to reconciliation and self-determination (Jozaghi & Jozaghi, 2024).

Therefore, unsurprisingly, monarchs’ coronations generate enormous curiosity, admiration, and aspirations in the 21st century, as millions worldwide turn to mass and social media platforms to follow and screen such sacred ceremonies, enshrined with centuries of history, customs, traditions, and divinity (Jozaghi & Jozaghi, 2024; Jozaghi & Jozaghi, 2026). Subsequently, King Charles III’s coronation generated hundreds of thousands of news wire reports worldwide and was viewed by millions of people globally (Henni, 2024; Rhoden-Paul, 2023).

2. Rationale and Focus

Coronation has enormous potential as a marketing tool and soft-power strategy to promote unity, religious tolerance, prestige, international influence, tourism, and military linkages with allies in multicultural, multilingual, multi-religious, and multi-ethnic commonwealth countries (Lang, 2023). This is particularly crucial during the Artificial Intelligence (AI) revolution and the rise of new forms of social media that continually seek to polarize, radicalize, and divide society for greater profit, with devastating consequences. Evaluating the value of establishing a coronation for other Commonwealth countries is essential, given that many Commonwealth nations’ demographics no longer reflect those of the British Isles, with people of various cultures, languages, and religions represented. More importantly, nations such as Australia and New Zealand have histories of colonialism against their Indigenous population or, in Canada, against both the Indigenous peoples, Metis, Inuit, and the French-speaking nation of Quebec; it is critical to establish an Indigenous-French-inspired coronation that reaffirms the commitment of the Crown to reconciliation and decolonization while establishing new relationships between English-speaking, French, Indigenous, Métis, and Inuit nations (Jozaghi, 2025a).

Moreover, many Commonwealth countries have laws and systems of government different from the British Westminster system (e.g., Quebec civil code), and the King’s oath at his coronation ceremony in English in London (UK) may symbolize his oath to the British People, not necessarily to the people of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Jamaica, Belize, Papua New Guinea, or other nations. This matters because many Prime Ministers, parliamentarians, the military, police, Judges, ambassadors, and the security establishment take the oath of loyalty to the sovereign; thus, the King’s oath to each nation, reinforced in its own unique ceremony, plays an enormous role in legitimizing the bond while also symbolizing commitment to each nation’s constitution, the rule of law, and continuity.

In effect, authority derived from coronation rituals—initially grounded in natural law and later reinforced by positive law—played a central role in the gradual emergence of courts, professional militaries, police forces, and administrative bureaucracies (Jozaghi, 2026b; Austin, Campbell, & Campbell, 1899; Hall, 1949; Jozaghi, 2025b). These institutions, in turn, pledged loyalty to the sovereign, who increasingly functioned as a non-partisan symbol of continuity, stability, duty, sacrifice, and service (McGreevy, 2022). Through this evolutionary process, the coronation came to embody commitments to peace, justice, accountability, and the principle that no individual, particularly those in positions of power, stands above the law (Jozaghi & Jozaghi, 2024; Feldman, 1988; Schröder, 2002; Toronto Star, 2023; Van Noort, 2024).

The political consequences of this transformation became evident during the English Civil War. King Charles I’s coronation oath—intended to bind him to his people—was later invoked by Parliament to justify charges of tyranny and treason following the end of the conflict (Vallance, 2002, 2021). In contemporary legal terms, these accusations align closely with what we would now describe as crimes against humanity (Vallance, 2021; UK Parliament, 2024). His execution marked a decisive moment in which positive law and parliamentary authority asserted supremacy over claims of divine or absolute rule tied to natural law (Vallance, 2002; 2021; UK Parliament, 2024; Hunt, 2008). This event significantly advanced the democratic evolutionary process by reinforcing the primacy of the rule of law over sovereign absolutism and the critical rule of coronation in democracy (Jozaghi & Jozaghi, 2024; Jozaghi & Jozaghi, 2026; Hunt, 2008; Shils & Young, 1953; Jozaghi, 2026b; Van Noort, 2024).

In addition, many thousands of new citizens are forced to take the citizenship oath in their home countries to the sovereign, and it is time the sovereign took the coronation oath in each country he represents as ceremonial King, not in London (UK) or a foreign country. Finally, many Commonwealth nations in the Caribbean, and immigrants from Southeast Asia, view the Coronation of the King at Westminster in London as reinforcement of British colonial history and thus aspire to their own unique ceremony, customized oath and rules to reinforce their connection to the Crown while celebrating their own uniqueness (Vovk, 2023). For example, a uniquely Canadian coronation could serve as a powerful unifying symbol within a society that includes Indigenous, Inuit, Métis (including the Red River Métis), Québécois, and diverse provincial identities—particularly amid rising polarization during the AI revolution and separatist aspirations in the Province of Alberta (Epp, 2024; Gross, 2023; Barry, 2026).

Creating a Canadian Crown that incorporates materials sourced from across the country—such as gold, diamonds, and gemstones—and integrates sacred symbols from multiple religious traditions (Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Sikhism, Judaism, and Indigenous religions) could reinforce Canadian multiculturalism and inclusivity (Cornford-Matheson, 2022). A coronation chair carved by Indigenous artists, Indigenous-inspired regalia, and ceremonial elements such as drum ceremonies, katajjaq (Inuit throat singing), offerings of tobacco, cedar, and sage, smudging rituals, and blessings by Indigenous knowledge keepers could help repair and strengthen relationships between the Crown and Indigenous peoples, addressing legacies of colonialism (Guedon, 2000; Murdock, 2019; Searles, 2020; Jozaghi, 2025a). In effect, the coronation chair and the Canadian-manufactured crown can be used during the Throne Speech annually by the Monarch’s representative in the Senate (Government of Canada, 2025).

Finally, a coronation by a Canadian, Australian, New Zealand, or other nation that incorporates a military parade would reaffirm the sovereign’s ceremonial role as commander-in-chief of the Commonwealth militaries and security establishment. Such symbolism reinforces shared bonds among allied nations amid heightened geopolitical instability, particularly in Eastern Ukraine and the South China Sea (Keay, 2024). As military personnel across the Commonwealth swear allegiance to the same sovereign, a homegrown coronation could renew this collective commitment to global rule-based order and underscore unity in the face of emerging global conflicts and coordinated adversarial strategies (BBC, 2023; US Congress, 2018; Jozaghi & Jozaghi, 2024; Jozaghi, 2024; Suter, 2023; Jozaghi, 2025b). This role is especially salient during the ongoing AI revolution, a period in which mass and AI-driven social media exert unprecedented influence over public opinion, while public discourse has become increasingly fragmented, polarized, and destabilized by algorithmic amplification and radical digital influencers (Jozaghi, 2025b, 2026b). Against this backdrop, coronation ceremonies may function as stabilizing symbolic events that generate significant public engagement, media attention, and international visibility.

To estimate these tangible marketing and economic values, this study examines coronation-related exposure across both new media platforms (e.g., X, YouTube, and Instagram) and traditional mass media sources (e.g., the Canadian Newsstream database) during the month and year of King Charles III’s coronation. Media reach, frequency, and visibility are treated as proxies for measurable economic value derived from public attention, branding, and international signalling. The rationale for this evaluation was influenced by the following inquiries:

Research Question One: Do the coronation’s tangible benefits outweigh the financial costs associated with such events?

Research Question Two: What is the estimated cost-benefit ratio of the coronation’s tangible economic and media-related values?

Research Question Three: Should the coronation, as an institutional practice, be expanded or adapted for use in other nations?

3. Methods

3.1. Sampling

The research relied on both mass and social media for data collection and sampling. For instance, the media sample from AI-driven social media included views of the coronation, associated ceremony activities, preparation, engagements, and events attended by members of the King’s family on mass and social media in 2023. This study analyzes the King’s (e.g., the royal family) social media activity on X, Instagram, and YouTube for one month (e.g., the coronation period of April 15 to May 15, 2023), to estimate the influence of new media (e.g., social media) during the coronation period. Social media outreach and its tangible value as a marketing tool and influencer have significant effects on the Coronation and potential economic output, both nationally and internationally.

3.2. Material

To economically evaluate the true potential of Coronation, social and mass media were used: 1) YouTube, 2) X (formerly known as Twitter), 3) Instagram, and 4) the ProQuest Newsstream database.

• The video-networking AI-driven media platform YouTube is the first social media site selected because many people no longer own cable/satellite TV and rely on YouTube (Budzinski, Gaenssle, & Lindstädt-Dreusicke, 2021). The platform also supports sharing, liking, following, and commenting on video uploads (Khan & Vong, 2014; Teixeira & Kornfeld, 2015). Over the years, the platform has become one of the most visited places to watch or share videos globally, with an estimated 2 billion monthly visitors (Tafesse, 2020). Billions of hours of video are screened on the platform daily, and, as a result, many firms and companies promote their businesses through advertising, with such promotional spending reaching $130 billion in the US (Tafesse, 2020; Johnson, 2023).
• X is the second social media platform utilized because it allows instantaneous views of photos, news, videos, and events. X also lets users comment, share, or like posts and follow others, with more than 300 million users (Alhabash & Ma, 2017). Founded almost two decades ago, the platform was purchased by the world’s wealthiest man, who potentially now uses it to promote his views, opinions, and business ventures by influencing politicians, governments, and public opinion to achieve more favourable policies (Coster & Ulmer, 2024; Ingram, 2024).
• Formerly known as the Newsstand Complete, the database is currently housed at the ProQuest interface and available across libraries and universities across Canada. The database is currently the largest in Canada, hosting historical magazines, article-based items, and newspapers from the 1970s (Jozaghi & VANDU, 2022, 2025, 2026). It hosts over 300 news, magazine, and print publications (Rosenbloom, 2019; Rosenbloom, 2018). The ProQuest Newsstream is also unique because it allows access to many publicly funded items (e.g., CBC News) as well as many private, rural, national, and local/independent mass media (Rosenbloom, 2018; Jozaghi & VANDU, 2022, 2025, 2026)
• Instagram, currently owned by Meta, began operations decades ago and has become the second most popular social networking site because it facilitates users’ access to posting photos, videos, comments, and likes within their social network. Instagram has over a billion users monthly, with an estimated 32% of all internet traffic attributed to the site (Kocak, Nasir, & Turker, 2020). The site has become highly effective in promoting influencers and luxury brands, tourism, clothing, and accessories, as posts and items by significant media influencers are examined, viewed, and clicked more often, with significant outreach to change consumer behaviour, attitudes, and norms (Segev et al., 2018; Vinerean & Opreana, 2019; Vogel et al., 2024).

3.3. Analysis

3.3.1. Mass Media Analysis

This study quantitatively evaluates coronation coverage in the Newssteam (Jozaghi & VANDU, 2022, 2025, 2026). For instance, as shown in Table 1 for 2023, when King Charles III’s coronation took place, the database was systematically searched using the names of royal households that played major roles in the ceremony or its preparatory activities.

3.3.2. Social Media Analysis

1. Social media accounts linked to the Royal Family: 1-The Royal Family channel (@TheRoyalFamilyChannel) and 2-The Royal Family (@royalchannel) were examined (e.g., comparatively) by counting the instances of likes, views, comments, and the total output of videos linked directly to the coronation or its preparations, as shown in Table 3. Table 3 also lists major YouTube channels covering English-language news and entertainment related to coronations.

2. The Instagram portfolio officially linked with the King (e.g., The Royal Family): 1-The Royal Family & 2-Prince and Princess of Wales were examined to assess the frequency of likes, posts, and comments, as demonstrated in Table 4.

3. Two accounts officially associated to the Royal Family on X were examined quantitatively: 1-@RoyalFamily (The Royal Family) and 2-@KensingtonRoyal (the Prince and Princess of Wales). For instance, Table 5 reports the total tweets, reposts, likes, and comments for the month leading up to King Charles III’s coronation in 2023 (April 15-May 15, 2023).

3.3.3. Coronation Expenditure as Contextual Information

The latest estimates of the cost of running King Charles III’s coronation ranged from US$91 to US$125 million (Cooban, 2024; Howard, 2024; Henni, 2024). Compared with Queen Elizabeth II’s event in the past century (e.g., 1953), King Charles III’s sacred ceremony was the most expensive on record, largely because security costs have risen and this century has become more dangerous than the period after WWII, when Queen Elizabeth II was crowned. Despite the security costs, the King’s coronation attempted to reduce costs substantially; it had fewer guests, for example, 2,000, compared to more than 8,000 guests for Queen Elizabeth II’s coronation, which cost the taxpayer £1.57 million in 1953 (£56 million in 2023 value) (Serhan, 2024). Moreover, the King’s coronation raised tens of millions of dollars for charity, which Queen Elizabeth II’s coronation did not (Henni, 2024). This analysis allocated US$108 million for the baseline cost, while $91 million and $125 million were allocated for the lower and upper sensitivity analyses, as shown in Table 6.

3.3.4. Digital-Attention and Media-Impact Assessment

Cultural economics distinguishes the market value of a cultural event from its broader cultural value. Throsby (2001, 2010) identifies dimensions such as aesthetic, symbolic, historical, spiritual, social, and authenticity value, many of which ticket revenue or media exposure do not reflect. Standard cultural-valuation studies therefore use methods such as contingent valuation and discrete-choice experiments to estimate willingness to pay; preference-revealed approaches, hedonic-pricing models, including travel-cost, to infer value from observed behaviour; and economic-impact or input-output analysis to estimate tourism, employment, and local expenditure. Public-sector cost–benefit analysis additionally requires a defined counterfactual, identification of opportunity costs, appropriate discounting of future benefits, sensitivity analysis, and safeguards against double counting. These approaches provide broader measures of social welfare than media engagement alone, although they generally require purpose-designed surveys, behavioural datasets, and assumptions about converting intangible preferences into monetary values.

The present method should therefore be understood as a complementary digital-attention valuation, not a replacement for established cultural-economics methodologies. Its comparative advantage lies in using observable, platform-specific indicators—views, posts, comments, likes, reposts, subscribers, and published articles—to estimate the market-equivalent value of international exposure generated during a defined period. This approach is comparatively inexpensive, replicable, responsive to contemporary digital communication, and able to distinguish exposure across media platforms. It is particularly suitable for evaluating the coronation as a global communication and branding event, whereas contingent valuation would better estimate citizens’ willingness to pay for the ceremony, and choice experiments could determine which ceremonial attributes people value. Accordingly, the estimates reported here represent the economic value attributed to measured media exposure, not the coronation’s total cultural or social-welfare value. Future research could combine this method with willingness-to-pay surveys, tourism expenditure, well-being valuation, and longitudinal measures of international attitudes.

As in previous studies, this evaluation used the mathematical model from prior media costing evaluations (Allom et al., 2018; Jozaghi, 2026a; Jozaghi & Jozaghi, 2026) to estimate the benefits associated with the coronation. The model was developed specifically for mass and social media impact, enabling the research to evaluate the compounded benefits for X, YouTube, Instagram, and mass media. The benefits of separate social media platforms were evaluated based on the total accumulated subsequent engagement by the platform users.

User engagement included comments, views, likes, and follower counts on X (Allom et al., 2018; Jozaghi, 2026a; Jozaghi & Jozaghi, 2026). The number of subscribers, posts, and views formed the basis for YouTube’s tangible value. For Instagram, the estimates considered only likes, comments, posts, and followers, as the platform, unlike X, does not publicly report view counts. For newspapers, magazines, and other articles (e.g., mass media), we considered total instances of new articles (including magazines, newspapers, trade journals, and all other publications). Accordingly, like Clayforth et al. (2014), Jozaghi & Jozaghi (2024), and Jozaghi (2025), for both platforms (e.g., X, YouTube, and Instagram), an equal weight was assigned to both social media platforms’ engagement (e.g., likes, comments, or reposts).

Based on previous research in this area, we used a weighted-sum approach to examine the estimated benefits of media platforms (e.g., social and mass media) (Clayforth et al., 2024; Jozaghi, 2026a). The first model below represents the total benefits of social media X. In contrast, s, r, t, u, v, w, and x are, respectively, the number of followers (s), like numbers (r), comment numbers (t), viewer counts (u), number of posts (v), number of retweets/reposts (w), and odds ratio of impact (x), as seen in the formula representing$\mathbf{ß}$.

$$\mathit{ß}=\mathit{s}\mathit{*}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{\mathit{r}+\mathit{t}+\mathit{u}+\mathit{v}+\mathit{w}}{\mathit{x}}}\right]$$

The second model below attempts to materialize the benefits of a social media account (YouTube) for the coronation as ē. In effect, y, z, a, and b each represent the added value of subscribers (y), the number of views (z), the posted video frequency (a), and the impact’s odds ratio (b).

$$\mathit{ē}=\mathit{y}\mathit{*}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{\mathit{z}+\mathit{a}}{\mathit{b}}}\right]$$

The third model assesses the media impact (e.g., social media) of the King’s Instagram accounts on the coronation event. The following variables represent its factors: p, o, n, l, and (i). For instance, (p) represents estimated followers; o represents the estimated instances of likes per post; (n) is linked to the comments amount per post; (l) is associated with the instances of posts during the coronation period; and (i) represents the odds of impact.

$$\mathit{Ç}=\mathit{p}\mathit{*}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{\mathit{o}+\mathit{n}+\mathit{l}}{\mathit{i}}}\right]$$

The fourth model below evaluates the mass media impact of the coronation as À. In effect, g, h, j, k, and m, respectively, represent the total number of newspapers (g), magazine articles (h), all other article types [e.g., Blogs, Podcasts, & Websites + wire + other sources] (j), the English speakers residing in Canada (m), and the odds ratio of impact (k).

$$\mathit{À}=\mathit{m}\mathit{*}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{\mathit{g}+\mathit{h}+\mathit{j}}{\mathit{k}}}\right]$$

The last model is the weighted total of all of Coronation’s mass media and social media coverage (ø). As seen below, β is linked to X total benefits, (ē) is related to YouTube, Instagram is linked to (Ç), and mass media total benefits are linked to (À).

$$\mathit{ø}=\mathit{ß}+\mathit{ē}+\mathit{Ç}+\mathit{À}$$

3.4. Sensitivity Analysis

Sensitivity analysis is essential in economic evaluation and analysis because it facilitates understanding and informed decision-making when uncertain variables and assumptions affect the total benefits. Therefore, the most uncertain variable, the odds ratio of impact and cost, is utilized, representing the 20% lower and upper values reported in previous studies (Allom et al., 2018; Clayforth et al., 2014; Jozaghi & Jozaghi, 2024; Jozaghi, 2026a; Jozaghi & Jozaghi, 2026).

3.5. Reliability and Validity

In any research (qualitative, mixed-methods, or quantitative), reliability and validity are key to evaluating the quality of analysis. Validity and reliability are directly tied to the parameters and model used in economic evaluation (Jozaghi, 2024). No universal method exists for assessing validity; each mathematical model should be examined in the parameters of the overall evaluation aim (Eddy, 1985; Buxton, 1997; Sheldon, 1996). At the same time, a rigorous assessment requires clear documentation of the model, traceable data sources, alignment between the analytical approach and research questions, and sensitivity testing appropriate to the study’s underlying assumptions. Previous economic evaluations have created a framework for examining mathematical models, which included: “(1) simplicity of the model; (2) transparency of the results; (3) quality of the data utilized; (4) sensitivity analysis usage to account for any uncertainties; and (5) comparing the model against other costing studies” (Jozaghi, 2024).

The current evaluation is not only valid but also reliable, as the mathematical models used have been extensively cited in social and mass media literature and costing studies (e.g., media modelling linked to mass and social media platforms) (Jozaghi & Jozaghi, 2024; Allom et al., 2018; Clayforth et al., 2014; Jozaghi, 2026a; Jozaghi & Jozaghi, 2026). As noted above, model simplicity, data transparency, and data mining via the World Wide Web, as demonstrated in Table 2 and Table 3, 4, 5, and 6, provide evidence of reliability and validity. Adequate referencing for the parameters and appropriate sensitivity analysis indicate reliability (Jozaghi, 2024; Allom et al., 2018; Clayforth et al., 2014; Jozaghi & Jozaghi, 2026; Jozaghi, 2026a).

4. Results

Based on Table 2, the coronation generated 70,680 related articles and newswire items across Canada in 2023, including 37,852 newspapers; 17,973 Blogs, Podcasts, and websites; 13,560 wire feeds; five magazines; and 1,290 other article sources. According to Table 3, the YouTube accounts of the royal family and various news organizations from English-speaking countries produced over half a billion views (e.g., 519,700,031 views) from more than 1900 videos (e.g., 1943 videos) linked to the coronation, with an estimated 263 million subscribers (e.g., 263,357,700 subscribers) across all the channels. Based on Table 4, Instagram generated over 49 million likes (e.g., 49,869,321) and 359,120 comments for 172 posts related to coronation preparations, events, and promotions. The King’s two Instagram accounts had substantial followings (e.g., over 30 million). The results from the King’s X accounts are shown in Table 5, where the coronation’s 290 posts generated 279.972 million views, 108,693 comments, 3.82 million likes, and 431,086 reposts/re-tweets for a total of 284.332 million impacts.

The model estimated that X had the highest impact, with $1.26 × 10^15 in tangible value and a ratio of 11.6 million:1 for benefit-to-cost, because Instagram does not share its view data. YouTube’s comments and likes were omitted from the current analysis. YouTube generated $7.091 x 10^14 in tangible values with a benefit-cost ratio of 6.57 million:1. On the other hand, Instagram produced $5.44 x 10^14 with a ratio of 5.04 million:1 for benefit-cost. Finally, mass media generated $6.97 x 10^14 in tangible values, with a ratio of 6.45 million: 1 for benefit-cost. Therefore, the combined media platform benefits generated $7.34x10^16 ($9.17x 10^16; $ 6.05 x 10^16) tangible benefits, which generated a ratio of 680 million to 1, with sensitivity analysis of lower estimates of 484 million: 1 and upper estimates of 1.01 billion: 1. Therefore, the coronation generates huge tangible financial benefits for the UK, with many more intangible substantial benefits as a soft-power strategy during the AI-driven economy. Many Commonwealth nations could potentially benefit from this arrangement by establishing homegrown coronations.

5. Discussion

The findings suggest that coronation ceremonies generate tangible benefits beyond their widely acknowledged symbolic and intangible functions. While coronations are traditionally understood as mechanisms for promoting national unity, cultural continuity, religious tolerance, ecumenical symbolism, and legitimacy of authority, the results indicate that these intangible outcomes translate into measurable economic and media-related value. When assessed through indicators such as media reach, frequency of exposure, and public engagement across both new and traditional media platforms, King Charles III’s coronation generated levels of attention consistent with large-scale international branding and strategic communication campaigns (Wang, 2023; Xygalatas, 2023; Bae, 2023; Jobson, 2024; Stevens, 2023). These findings directly address Research Question One, showing that the coronation’s tangible benefits outweigh its financial costs when evaluated through a cost-benefit lens grounded in media and marketing value.

The results further show that the coronation functioned as a highly effective soft-power instrument, particularly in a geopolitical and informational environment characterized by populism, economic competition, and informational warfare (Scheiring, 2024). The coronation reinforced sovereignty, institutional continuity, and national identity at a time when digital platforms increasingly contest authority structures. This effect is especially significant during the ongoing AI revolution, in which algorithmic amplification and radical influencers have contributed to fragmented, polarized, and destabilized public discourse. Against this backdrop, the coronation served as a rare focal event that temporarily reoriented public attention toward shared symbols, institutions, and historical continuity.

The findings nevertheless establish the existence of a soft-power resource more clearly than a completed soft-power outcome. Under Nye’s (2004) definition, cultural visibility becomes soft power only when attraction influences the preferences or conduct of relevant foreign actors; online viewing, favourable commentary, and media engagement demonstrate attention but do not independently show that another state acted in accordance with UK objectives. The coronation elicited concrete participation from other Commonwealth realms. Canada sent an official delegation and contingent including personnel drawn from Canada’s military and federal police service (e.g., the RCMP) (Office of the Prime Minister of Canada, 2023). New Zealand and Australia were represented by senior political and vice-regal officials and military contingents (Australian Government, 2023; New Zealand Government, 2023). Papua New Guinea organized an official ceremony involving its defence force, constabulary, fire, correctional, and ambulance services (Kia, 2023). Canada also introduced a national coronation emblem, commemorative initiatives, and subsequently a Canadian coronation medal. These actions demonstrate diplomatic participation, institutional recognition, and the voluntary reproduction of coronation symbolism outside the UK. They support the narrower conclusion that the coronation activated Commonwealth networks and accrued reputational and symbolic resources for the UK. However, without evidence that these states subsequently changed a foreign-policy position, entered an agreement, or supported a specific UK objective because of the ceremony, the study should not claim that the coronation produced behavioural influence in Nye’s (2004) stronger sense. Digital media expanded the ceremony’s reach, but reach should be treated as an enabling resource rather than proof of policy influence (Ahmed, 2025).

In response to Research Question Two, the estimated ratio between coronation-related media exposure value and direct ceremonial cost suggests that the market-equivalent value assigned by the model, generated through public attention, international visibility, and sustained media engagement, substantially exceeds the ceremony’s direct costs. By treating media impressions and coverage as proxies for market-equivalent advertising and branding value, the analysis demonstrates that coronations can be understood as high-return public investments rather than ceremonial expenditures. Importantly, this valuation does not capture secondary or long-term effects, such as diplomatic signalling, tourism interest, or reputational spillovers, suggesting that the estimated cost-benefit ratio may be conservative.

Finally, the findings provide a basis for addressing Research Question Three regarding the potential expansion or adaptation of coronation practices to other nations. The evidence indicates that coronations can function as adaptable institutional tools rather than static historical relics. When culturally contextualized, such ceremonies may offer other nations a way to reinforce unity, sovereignty, and institutional legitimacy amid accelerated technological change and shifting social and political conditions. In an era defined by AI-driven communication, fragmented media ecosystems, and declining trust in political institutions, coronation-like events may serve as stabilizing rituals that combine symbolic authority with tangible economic and communicative value.

Taken together, the results suggest that coronations should be evaluated not solely through cultural or historical frameworks, but also through economic, strategic, and institutional lenses. As this analysis shows, coronation ceremonies can generate symbolic legitimacy and measurable tangible benefits, positioning them as relevant and potentially valuable institutions in contemporary governance systems shaped by the AI revolution.

6. Limitations and Strengths

The biggest strength of this research is its innovative approach to cost-benefit analysis, which accounts for the value of new modes of influence during the rapidly evolving AI revolution, such as X, YouTube, and Instagram, to which other researchers often pay less attention. Furthermore, this is the first study to attempt to evaluate the enormous potential of coronation as an international event that promotes the rule of law, democracy, tolerance, and the reinforcement of allied links through the military in increasingly polarized and unstable societies affected by the AI revolution. In addition, this research underestimates the projected benefits because it did not include other media, such as radio, TV, and satellite. In effect, previous research has reported that TV and radio have enormous potential in reaching audiences (Frandsen, Thow, & Ferguson, 2016).

Limitations of this research include not accounting for the effects of comments, likes, and video sharing on the Royal Family’s YouTube channels, which should have been included in the model. Moreover, this research should have reported on the combined audience of the Coronation via other YouTube channels from other major or minor international broadcasters where English is not spoken (e.g., DW, France 24, Rai, NPO, RTVE, SVT, DR1, NRK, RTP, Yle, vrt, RTBF, TVP, NHK, KBS, SABC, TRT, CCTV, NBT, Doordarshan, TVP) or individual recordings of the coronation. Additionally, the study omitted recordings and coverage of the coronation on other AI-driven platforms, such as Snapchat, Facebook, Vimeo, Rumble, and Bluesky. Furthermore, relying on international newswires and magazines in different languages, or on databases, can help more accurately estimate the actual economic value of coronation events.

Previous research also shows that social media influencers have a stronger effect on public opinion (e.g., a larger odds ratio), so not using the appropriate odds ratio for ‘the Royal Family’s various social media’ may have underestimated the results (Vogel et al., 2024). Additionally, Instagram, unlike X, does not disclose the number of views for photos or videos, so mathematical models cannot accurately estimate benefits or costs. Therefore, this research’s results severely undervalue the coronation’s total benefits. In addition, the assumption that likes and comments on Instagram and X have the same potential influence or odds ratio is supported by limited research in this domain and the available data.

7. Conclusions

The constitutional monarchy system that governs many Commonwealth and non-Commonwealth nations is the product of a long evolutionary process shaped by sustained tension between sovereign authority grounded in natural law and divine legitimacy, and the gradual assertion of political, economic, and legal rights by landowners, merchants, and the broader population through representative institutions such as the Parliament (e.g., House of Lords and later Commons) (Jozaghi, 2026b; Jozaghi & Jozaghi, 2026; Houses of Parliament, 2018; Huq, 2022; Van Noort, 2024). Coronation rituals—rooted in sacred anointing, oaths, homage, and religious symbolism—have historically negotiated, formalized, and publicly reaffirmed this fragile power balance. The onset of the British Civil War, the trial, conviction, and the execution of a reigning monarch underscore that constitutional governance and the contemporary role of a non-partisan sovereign did not arise instantaneously but emerged over centuries of institutional struggle, legal refinement, and societal adaptation. These accumulated processes are reflected and renewed through coronation ceremonies, which continue to symbolize the convergence of law, legitimacy, and continuity.

As a result of this evolutionary trajectory, constitutional monarchies appear less vulnerable to power vacuums, abrupt leadership crises, coups, and unconstitutional seizures of authority—risks that are more frequently observed in presidential systems and are likely to intensify during the AI revolution, when misinformation, algorithmic manipulation, and rapid mobilization can destabilize political institutions (Jozaghi & Jozaghi, 2026). Recent events in Brazil, Niger, South Korea, and other historical cases illustrate presidential systems’ heightened susceptibility to such disruptions (Jozaghi & Jozaghi, 2024; Jozaghi & Jozaghi, 2026). In contrast, a non-partisan sovereign reaffirmed through homegrown coronation provides an enduring institutional anchor that facilitates continuity during transitions of power.

These findings indicate that major ceremonial events can mobilize digital attention, reproduce institutional symbols across national boundaries, and create resources that may contribute to cultural diplomacy and soft power. Nevertheless, visibility is not equivalent to economic value, favourable public opinion, or behavioural influence. The study therefore concludes that the coronation created a substantial cross-platform media footprint and potential soft-power resources, while further research is required to determine whether these resources affected tourism, public attitudes, diplomatic cooperation, or the policy behaviour of other states.

At present, Scotland and the UK are unique among Commonwealth nations in fully benefiting from coronation ceremonies as recurring mechanisms for reaffirming the Rule of Law and continuity (Khalil, 2023). These ceremonies deliver a convergence of symbolic, cultural, and tangible advantages, including reinforced religious tolerance, national unity, international prestige, diplomatic soft power, tourism, military continuity, and substantial domestic and global media exposure. As this study shows, these outcomes generate significant direct and indirect economic value. Taken together, the findings suggest that coronation ceremonies should not be dismissed as ceremonial relics but rather understood as adaptive institutional tools with demonstrable governance, economic, and strategic value. In an era defined by rapid technological change, political polarization, and AI-driven information warfare, the coronation remains a uniquely powerful mechanism for reaffirming constitutional order, national identity, and continuity of authority.