The Importance of Climate Hope and a Sense of Connection with Nature for Pro-Environmental Behavior and Mental Health

1. Introduction

Contemporary research shows that knowledge about climate change does not automatically translate into pro-environmental engagement [1] . To take action, individuals need, among other things, hope, understood as a positive cognitive and motivational resource comprising the belief that a goal can be achieved and the recognition of pathways leading to its realization [2] . Climate hope is a psychological resource that enables an individual to maintain a belief in the possibility of positive change, despite being aware of the threats associated with climate change [3]. Hope helps to maintain motivation to act despite experiencing negative emotions, such as anxiety, sadness or frustration, associated with the climate crisis [4], and protects people from feelings of helplessness and resignation. Hope related to climate change can take various forms. Research indicates that constructive hope is associated with greater climate engagement and more frequent pro-environmental behavior. In contrast, hope based on denial of the problem is associated with lower levels of pro-environmental activity [5].

A meta-analysis in this area confirmed that hope is associated with greater climate engagement; however, the type of hope is significant [6]. Hope is regarded not only as a predictor of pro-environmental behavior, but also as a resource that supports mental health, due to the belief that one is capable of achieving a goal (agency) and the belief that there are ways to achieve it (pathways); this results in better self-regulation and is beneficial to mental health [7]. Experiencing climate hope does not preclude climate anxiety, as this state of anxiety is a consequence of awareness of the threats and, at the same time, accompanies a belief in the possibility of change [3]. People in Poland demonstrate a high level of awareness of climate threats; however, their conviction that the crisis can be effectively addressed is sometimes limited, which may lead to a weakening of climate hope [8].

In the classical sense, Mayer and Frantz [9] define a connection with nature as the perception of oneself as part of the natural world, which results in a sense of communion with nature. Nowadays, a connection with nature is defined as a lasting emotional and psychological relationship between a person and the natural world, which can be developed through everyday experiences of contact with nature, and which, in turn, is significant for human well-being [10]. People with a stronger connection to nature demonstrate higher levels of eudaimonic well-being, a sense of meaning in life and personal development [11]. It appears that people with a stronger connection to nature not only enjoy better health outcomes but also exhibit more environmentally friendly behaviors [9,12], a finding also confirmed by longitudinal studies [13]. These associations were further corroborated in a meta-analysis [14]. This suggests a mechanism of environmental defense resulting from identification with nature, in line with the principle that a threat to the environment may be perceived as a threat to something of value. Consequently, motivation to take action to protect the environment may increase.

Pro-environmental behavior is defined as actions taken to reduce negative impacts on the environment or to support its protection. These may include both everyday consumer practices and actions related to reducing greenhouse gas emissions, saving energy or changing dietary habits [15]. In research on pro-environmental intentions, according to Ajzen’s [16] theory of planned behavior, intentions are the closest predictor of actual behavior. Measuring intentions allows one to assess an individual’s readiness to undertake actions that promote environmental protection, such as reducing meat consumption or cutting down on energy use. Some studies suggest that engaging in pro-environmental behavior may be associated with greater psychological well-being [17]. This mechanism may be linked to a sense of purpose, consistency between actions and values, and an improved self-image [18]. However, intense pro-environmental behavior can lead to emotional overload, frustration and activist burnout [19], which paints a more complex picture of the relationship between pro-environmental behavior and mental wellbeing. The level of pro-environmental behavior among people in Poland varies, and declared concern for the environment does not always translate into action [20]; economic or practical considerations often play a greater role [21].

In addition to psychological variables, the significance of socio-demographic variables was analyzed. The literature reports that gender influences pro-environmental behavior [22]. Women show greater concern for the environment and are more engaged in this area, which can be explained by the theory of gender role socialization, according to which women are more likely to display caring and prosocial behavior [23]. Regarding age, the findings are mixed; however, young people are more likely to experience emotional reactions to the climate crisis [24]. Regarding religiosity, research indicates that beliefs among Christians regarding responsibility for the world are associated with a greater willingness to make sacrifices for the environment, more frequent pro-environmental behaviors, and greater environmental engagement [25]. On the other hand, however, a controlling image of God may undermine pro-environmental behavior [26]. Contemporary research also indicates that spirituality is more frequently associated with positive attitudes towards the environment than religious fundamentalism [27].

2. Materials and Methods

A review of the literature indicates a lack of research on climate hope in Poland, and it may contribute to the gap between awareness of the crisis and climate action. The study also examines the relationship between a sense of connection with nature and its influence on pro-climate behavior. These variables were also examined in relation to individual well-being and socio-demographic variables. The aim of this study is to investigate whether climate hope and a sense of connection with nature are significant for pro-climate behavior and individuals’ mental well-being, and to analyze the significance of gender, age and religiosity for the variables under investigation.

This study hypothesizes:

H1. 

Climate hope and a sense of connection with nature are associated with mental well-being and psychological distress. Higher levels of climate hope and stronger nature connectedness will be associated with greater well-being and lower levels of depression and anxiety symptoms.

H2. 

Climate hope and a sense of connection with nature are linked to the adoption of pro-climate behaviors. Higher levels of climate hope and a stronger connection with nature will be associated with more intensive pro-environmental behaviors.

H3. 

Climate hope and a sense of connection with nature will be significantly and positively associated with pro-climate behavior, even after controlling for the influence of basic socio-demographic variables such as age, gender and religiosity. These variables are expected to provide additional explanation for pro-climate behavior beyond the contribution of socio-demographic variables.

The current study was conducted as a part of a broader multi-year cross-border research project, the Hope Barometer, coordinated by Andreas Krafft. The Polish sample consisted of 629 participants recruited through word-of-mouth and social media accounts of the University of Lodz and Kazimierz Wielki University (463 women, 73.6%; 157 men, 25.0%; and 9 individuals who identified as another gender, 1.4%). In the full sample, ages ranged from 18 to 74 years (M = 31.86, SD = 13.54). Because the gender category “another gender” was too small for stable regression contrasts (n = 9), these nine participants were excluded from the inferential analyses, yielding an analytic sample of N = 620 (463 women, 157 men; age M = 31.95, SD = 13.55; range 18–74).

Data was collected using a self-report online questionnaire. Prior to participation, all respondents provided informed consent and were assured of the anonymity and confidentiality of their responses. The study protocol was designed in accordance with the ethical guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki. Approval was also obtained from the Ethics Committee of Kazimierz Wielki University in Bydgoszcz (Approval no. 19/30.06.2026).

To test the formulated hypotheses, a set of standardized psychological tools was utilized. Where applicable, scales were translated and adapted into Polish using a standard back-translation procedure involving subject-matter experts [28].

• Climate Hope. Climate hope was measured using an 8-item Constructive Hope scale developed by [5]. This measure assesses the extent to which individuals feel optimistic about the future of the climate based on positive reappraisal and trust in the capabilities of societal actors (e.g., scientists, politicians, and laypeople). Higher scores indicate a higher level of constructive climate hope. Internal consistency for this scale in the current study was high (α = .87). The mean score in the current sample was 3.20 (SD = 1.21).
• Nature Connectedness. The sense of connection with the natural world was assessed using the Nature Connection Index (NCI) [10]. The NCI is a brief, 6-item scale that captures the affective and experiential relationship individuals have with nature (e.g., “I feel part of nature”, “I always find beauty in nature”). Responses were recorded on a 7-point scale (1 to 7). Higher average scores reflect a stronger psychological bond with the natural environment. The reliability of the scale in this sample was excellent (α = .91), with a mean score of 5.80 (SD = 1.19).
• Mental Health and Well-being. Mental health was operationalized using two separate dimensions: positive psychological functioning and symptoms of psychological distress:

-Mental Health Continuum (MHC): Positive mental health was measured using the 14-item Mental Health Continuum-Short Form (MHC-SF) [29,30]. The MHC-SF assesses emotional, psychological, and social well-being, allowing for the evaluation of an individual’s overall flourishing in life. Higher scores indicate a higher level of subjective well-being. The scale demonstrated excellent reliability in this study (α = .93), with an average score of 3.79 (SD = 1.03).

-Depression and Anxiety: Symptoms of psychological distress were measured using a 4-item Patient Health Questionnaire for Depression and Anxiety (PHQ-4) [31]. The scale assesses the frequency of depression and anxiety symptoms over the past weeks. Higher scores indicate greater severity of distress. Internal consistency was good (α = .84), and the sample mean was 4.45 (SD = 3.22).

4.

Pro-environmental Intentions. The willingness to engage in climate-friendly actions was measured using a 10-item pro-environmental intentions scale [32]. Participants rated their likelihood of undertaking various pro-environmental actions (e.g., supporting climate policies, reducing carbon footprint). Higher scores represent a stronger intent to act pro-environmentally. The reliability for this scale was good (α = .84), with an average score of 4.21 (SD = 1.04).

5.

Sociodemographic and Control Variables. Participants provided demographic information, including age (measured continuously in years) and gender. Self-reported religiosity was also measured by asking participants to indicate their religious affiliation. To ensure model stability during regression analysis, extremely rare categories (n < 19) collapsed into a broader “Other/rare” category.

All statistical analyses were conducted in the R programming environment. First, descriptive statistics and bivariate Pearson’s correlations were calculated to examine the baseline relationships between the continuous variables and test Hypotheses 1 and 2. Statistical significance was assessed at the .05 level. To control for inflated Type I error among the six pre-specified H1/H2 Pearson correlations (climate hope and nature connectedness each with well-being, depression/anxiety, and pro-environmental intentions), p values for these focal tests were adjusted using the Holm step-down procedure [33].

To test Hypothesis 3 regarding the specific predictors of pro-environmental intentions, a hierarchical multiple Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression was employed. Prior to interpretation, regression assumptions (multicollinearity, normality of residuals, heteroscedasticity, and influential outliers) were verified. In Step 1 (the baseline model), sociodemographic variables including age, gender, and religiosity were entered into the model to control their baseline effects. In Step 2, the core psychological variables—climate hope and nature connectedness—were added to the model. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to compare the models and determine whether the inclusion of hope and nature connectedness provided a statistically significant improvement in the proportion of explained variance (ΔR2) beyond sociodemographics alone. Bootstrapping (with 5000 resamples) was employed to obtain robust estimates of standard errors and confidence intervals, thereby reducing the influence of potential violations of normality assumptions.

Post-hoc power analyses were conducted in G*Power 3.1.9.7 [34] for a fixed-model R² increase (α = .05). For the observed Step-2 improvement (ΔR² = .179; f² = .24; tested predictors = 2; total predictors = 7; N = 620), achieved power was 1.00. A sensitivity analysis under the same design indicated that an effect as small as f² = .016 would still be detected with power = .80. Additionally, with N = 620, bivariate correlations of approximately |r| ≥ .11 achieve power ≈ .80 (α = .05, two-tailed). The smallest focal correlation observed in the present study (|r| = .10 for climate hope and depression/anxiety symptoms) was associated with post-hoc power of approximately .71.

3. Results

3.1. Descriptive Statistics and Preliminary Analyses

First, descriptive statistics and scale reliability were computed. Skewness and kurtosis values for all continuous variables fell well within the acceptable range of -2 to +2, indicating that the data were normally distributed and suitable for parametric testing [35]. All scales demonstrated good to excellent internal consistency (Cronbach’s α ranging from .84 to .93). Descriptive statistics are presented in Table 1.

3.2. Correlation Analyses

To test the first two hypotheses, a Pearson correlation matrix was computed (see Table 2). Hypothesis 1 posited that climate hope and nature connectedness are significantly associated with individuals’ mental health. The analysis supported this assumption. Climate hope was positively correlated with subjective well-being (MHC; r = .29, p < .001) and negatively correlated with symptoms of depression and anxiety (r = -.10, p = .012). Similarly, nature connectedness showed a positive relationship with well-being (r = .32, p < .001) and a negative relationship with depression and anxiety (r = -.18, p < .001). All six pre-specified H1/H2 correlations remained statistically significant after Holm correction. Hypothesis 2 assumed that climate hope and nature connectedness would be positively correlated with intentions to engage in climate-friendly actions. The results confirmed this: both climate hope (r = .38, p < .001) and nature connectedness (r = .33, p < .001) exhibited significant, positive correlations with pro-environmental intentions.

3.3. Predictors of Pro-Environmental Intentions

Before interpreting the regression models, OLS assumptions were evaluated. Multicollinearity was not an issue, as the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) values for all predictors ranged from 1.09 to 1.19, falling well below the conservative threshold of 5 [36]. The Shapiro-Wilk test for the normality of residuals yielded a statistically significant result (W = 0.993, p = .009), suggesting a slight deviation from a perfectly normal distribution. However, because the W statistic is exceptionally close to 1, and the test is highly sensitive to minor deviations in large samples (N = 620), this deviation was deemed negligible. The Breusch-Pagan test indicated the presence of heteroscedasticity (BP = 42.88, p < .001); nevertheless, OLS parameter estimates remain unbiased in large samples. Finally, the models were screened for influential outliers using Cook’s distance. The maximum Cook’s distance value identified was 0.024, which is far below the critical threshold of 1, indicating that no single observation exerted undue influence on the model.

To test Hypothesis 3, a hierarchical multiple regression analysis was conducted (see Table 3). In Step 1, the sociodemographic control variables (age, gender, and religiosity) were entered. This baseline model was significant, F(5, 614) = 10, p < .001, and accounted for approximately 7.5% of the variance in pro-environmental intentions (R² = .075). Age was a significant positive predictor (B = 0.01, p = .003), as was female gender (B = 0.49, p < .001) and non-religious affiliation relative to Catholicism (B = 0.45, p < .001). Spiritual affiliation (B = 0.20, p = .116) and other/rare religious affiliations (B = 0.18, p = .319) were not statistically significant.

In Step 2, climate hope and nature connectedness were added to the model. The inclusion of these psychological variables resulted in a statistically significant improvement in the model’s predictive power, increasing the explained variance by an additional 17.9 percentage points (ΔR² = .179, F(2, 612) = 73.29, p < .001). The final complete model (Step 2) explained 25.4% of the total variance, F(7, 612) = 29.76, p < .001. Supporting Hypothesis 3, higher levels of climate hope (β = .32, p < .001) and stronger nature connectedness (β = .23, p < .001) emerged as the strongest and most significant positive predictors of pro-environmental intentions, above and beyond the effects of age, gender, and religiosity.

4. Discussion

The present study examined whether climate hope and nature connectedness are associated with pro-environmental intentions and mental health. Overall, the findings support the role of both constructs as relevant psychological resources in the context of the climate crisis. Climate hope and nature connectedness were positively associated with pro-environmental intentions and well-being and negatively associated with symptoms of depression and anxiety. Importantly, when added to the sociodemographic variables, both constructs remained significant predictors of pro-environmental intentions, increasing the explained variance from 7.5% to 25.4% (ΔR² = .179). This substantial increase suggests that psychological resources may provide greater explanatory value for pro-environmental intentions than sociodemographic characteristics alone.

Climate hope proved to be the strongest predictor of pro-environmental intentions (β = 0.32), which confirms the findings of earlier studies linking hope to engagement with climate issues [3,4,5,6]. This finding is consistent with the concept of hope as a motivational resource [2,7], and in the context of climate change, such a resource may be particularly important, as awareness of environmental threats can foster agency and action. It has been shown that climate hope can encourage climate-friendly behavior, but also that the reverse is true: pro-environmental behavior can strengthen climate hope [37]. Hope and action may form a reinforcing feedback loop rather than a simple one-directional relationship. Importantly, climate hope should not be understood as mere optimism or a denial of climate threats. Rather, constructive hope may enable individuals to acknowledge the seriousness of climate change while retaining the conviction that meaningful action and positive change remain possible [3]. These findings therefore suggest that maintaining a realistic sense of possibility may be important for sustaining a willingness to engage with climate-related challenges.

A connection with nature was also an independent predictor of pro-environmental intentions (β = 0.23), which is consistent with previous evidence pointing to a link between a stronger connection with nature and environmental engagement [9,11,13,14]. Nature connectedness may be one of the earlier stages in the process leading to environmental self-identity, which in turn may influence intentions and behavior [38]. Although this relationship was somewhat weaker than that for climate hope, this finding suggests that these two constructs may represent complementary psychological pathways. A connection with nature may provide an emotional and identity-based foundation for concern for the natural world, while climate hope may contribute a more motivational, explicitly future-oriented dimension. Furthermore, their positive correlation (r = 0.27) suggests that these resources are interrelated, yet also complementary. Importantly, nature connectedness may not represent a fixed individual characteristic but rather a malleable psychological resource that can be strengthened through targeted interventions, suggesting a promising avenue for fostering both environmental engagement and psychological well-being [39].

Links to mental health provide an additional perspective on these findings. Both climate hope and a sense of connection with nature showed a positive association with well-being, while their links to depression and anxiety were negative, albeit weaker. A sense of connection with nature showed a slightly stronger association with both well-being and lower levels of depression and anxiety. This is consistent with previous research linking a sense of connection with nature to eudaimonic well-being [11] and suggests that a connection with nature may have significance beyond environmental attitudes and intentions.

The results of the socio-demographic research further emphasise the importance of taking psychological factors into account when analysing pro-environmental intentions. Women demonstrated stronger pro-environmental intentions, which is consistent with previous research on gender differences in environmentalism [22]. Gender differences should be analysed with great caution due to the uneven distribution of men and women in the sample. Religiousness was also associated with pro-environmental intentions, although this association should be interpreted with caution, as religious affiliation does not reflect the diversity of religious beliefs regarding humanity’s relationship with nature and responsibility for the environment [26,27]. It is worth noting that age was significant in the sociodemographic model, but ceased to be significant once climate hope and a sense of connection with nature were taken into account. While sociodemographic differences may be relevant to pro-environmental behavior, psychological factors accounted for substantially more additional variance in pro-environmental intentions than the sociodemographic variables alone.

These findings have several practical implications. Climate communication and environmental education may benefit from moving beyond the transmission of knowledge alone, particularly given the documented knowledge–action gap [1]. Approaches that combine accurate information about climate risks with credible pathways for action may help foster constructive hope without minimizing the seriousness of the crisis. Similarly, opportunities for meaningful engagement with nature may support both environmental motivation and psychological well-being. Such approaches should nevertheless be evaluated empirically, as the present findings concern associations and intentions rather than observed behavior.

Several limitations should be acknowledged. First, the cross-sectional design precludes drawing causal conclusions; while it is theorized that hope and nature connectedness drive behavior, engaging in pro-environmental actions may also recursively foster hope and well-being [17,18]. Second, the study measured pro-environmental intentions rather than actual behavior. The gap between environmental knowledge, intentions, and objective actions is well-documented [1] and future research should utilize behavioral observations or longitudinal designs to verify these links. Finally, the sample was predominantly female (74.7%), which may limit the generalizability of the findings. These limitations highlight the need for longitudinal research integrating measures of psychological resources, pro-environmental intentions, and actual behavior.

5. Conclusion

The hierarchical regression analysis revealed that including climate hope and nature connectedness increased the explained variance in pro-environmental intentions by nearly 18% over sociodemographics alone. Constructive climate hope emerged as the strongest predictor in the final model. This corroborates recent meta-analytic evidence by [6], who demonstrated that empowering, constructive hope is a key driver of climate engagement. Unlike hope based on denial, which often reduces pro-environmental behavior [5], constructive hope motivates individuals to act despite the presence of climate-related anxiety [24].