User Acceptance and Affordability of Electric Vehicles: A Review of Impact Factors and Current Drivers and Barriers for Frugal Electric Vehicles

Electric vehicles (EVs) are increasingly recognised as a key component of sustainable mobility transitions. While technological advancements and supportive policies have significantly expanded EV adoption, the relatively high purchase cost of conventional EVs remains a barrier for many consumers. In response, a new generation of frugal EVs has emerged, emphasizing affordability, resource efficiency, and functional adequacy while maintaining essential mobility requirements. Despite growing commercial interest, the factors influencing the acceptance and affordability of frugal EVs remain underexplored in the academic literature. This paper addresses this gap through a structured literature review using the SALSA (Search, Appraisal, Synthesis, and Analysis) framework. A total of 116 studies were selected and analysed to identify the key factors influencing user acceptance and affordability in the context of frugal EVs. The reviewed evidence was synthesised into four principal dimensions: demographic, situational, contextual, and psychological factors. The findings indicate that affordability, low operating costs, compact urban mobility, modular vehicle design, and battery-swapping technologies are among the most important drivers of frugal EV adoption. In contrast, safety concerns, limited driving range, charging infrastructure constraints, weak resale value, regulatory uncertainty, and perceptions of lower quality remain significant barriers to market acceptance. The review further suggests that the adoption dynamics of frugal EVs differ from those of conventional EVs, particularly due to their emphasis on cost-performance trade-offs and urban mobility applications. From a smart-city perspective, frugal EVs have the potential to support more inclusive and sustainable urban transportation systems by expanding access to low-carbon mobility for cost-sensitive users and underserved market segments. The study contributes to the emerging literature on affordable electric mobility by providing a dedicated framework for understanding frugal EV acceptance and affordability. It concludes with recommendations for policymakers, manufacturers, infrastructure providers, and service operators aimed at supporting the wider adoption and distribution of frugal EVs.