The Power of Positive Emotions in Occupational Stress Coping: A Social/Positive Psychology Approach

1. Introduction

Occupational stress constitutes one of the most extensively studied topics in organizational psychology and occupational health. Contemporary workplaces expose employees to increasing performance demands, technological changes, organizational restructuring, job insecurity, and growing expectations for productivity. Consequently, chronic occupational stress has become a major risk factor for reduced well-being, psychological distress, absenteeism, burnout, and organizational inefficiency.

Traditionally, research on occupational stress has focused predominantly on risk factors and negative outcomes. While such approaches have significantly advanced understanding of workplace dysfunction, they often overlook psychological resources that enable individuals to maintain well-being despite adverse working conditions.

The emergence of Positive Psychology has transformed the scientific study of human functioning by shifting attention from pathology toward strengths, flourishing, resilience, and optimal performance (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Within this framework, positive emotions are conceptualized not merely as indicators of well-being but as adaptive psychological resources that contribute to coping, growth, and resilience.

One of the most influential theoretical explanations of this process is Fredrickson’s Broaden-and-Build Theory (Fredrickson, 2001). According to this model, positive emotions broaden individuals’ momentary thought-action repertoires and facilitate the accumulation of enduring psychological, social, and cognitive resources. Employees who frequently experience positive emotions may therefore possess greater adaptive capacity when confronted with occupational stressors.

Recent empirical evidence has continued to support the relevance of positive emotions in organizational settings. Studies published during the last decade indicate that positive affect predicts resilience, work engagement, psychological flexibility, adaptive coping, organizational commitment, and employee performance. Simultaneously, positive emotional experiences appear to buffer the negative effects of workplace stress and reduce vulnerability to burnout.

Despite growing international interest in these mechanisms, relatively few large-scale studies have examined the relationship between positive emotions and occupational stress within Southern European populations. The present study addresses this gap by investigating the role of positive emotions in occupational stress coping among a large Greek workforce sample.

The study is grounded in both Positive Psychology and Social Psychology perspectives and seeks to provide empirical evidence regarding the extent to which positive emotional experiences contribute to occupational stress reduction beyond demographic and occupational influences.

2. Literature Review and Hypothesis Development

2.1. Occupational Stress in Contemporary Work Environments

Occupational stress continues to represent one of the most significant challenges facing employees and organizations worldwide. The rapid transformation of work environments driven by technological innovation, digitalization, globalization, workforce restructuring, and increasing performance demands has substantially altered the nature of occupational stressors (Cooper & Quick, 2024).

The World Health Organization has identified workplace stress and burnout as major public health concerns affecting employee well-being and organizational productivity. The inclusion of burnout in the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11) further reflects the growing recognition of psychosocial risks within occupational settings (World Health Organization, 2022).

Contemporary models conceptualize occupational stress as a dynamic interaction between environmental demands and individual coping resources. The Job Demands–Resources (JD-R) model remains one of the most influential frameworks for understanding these processes (Bakker & Demerouti, 2017). According to this model, stress emerges when job demands exceed available resources, resulting in psychological strain, emotional exhaustion, and impaired performance.

Recent studies have shown that occupational stress is associated with numerous adverse outcomes, including anxiety, depression, sleep disturbances, cardiovascular risk, absenteeism, presenteeism, reduced job satisfaction, and turnover intentions (Harms et al., 2021; Vîrgă et al., 2023). Furthermore, chronic workplace stress contributes significantly to organizational costs through reduced productivity and increased healthcare expenditures.

The COVID-19 pandemic further intensified interest in occupational stress research. Emerging evidence suggests that uncertainty, remote working arrangements, social isolation, and increased workload demands have amplified stress experiences across occupational sectors (Kniffin et al., 2021). Consequently, researchers have increasingly focused on identifying protective psychological factors that facilitate adaptive coping and resilience.

2.2. Positive Psychology and the Scientific Study of Human Strengths

The emergence of Positive Psychology fundamentally transformed the scientific study of psychological functioning. Rather than focusing exclusively on pathology and dysfunction, Positive Psychology seeks to understand the factors that enable individuals and organizations to thrive (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000).

Contemporary positive psychology emphasizes strengths, flourishing, resilience, engagement, meaning, optimism, and well-being as critical dimensions of human functioning (Seligman, 2018). Research over the past two decades has demonstrated that these positive psychological resources contribute substantially to both individual and organizational effectiveness.

A growing body of evidence suggests that positive psychological functioning is not merely the absence of psychological distress but rather a distinct construct associated with improved health, greater adaptability, and superior occupational outcomes (Donaldson et al., 2022).

Within organizational contexts, positive psychology has inspired the development of Positive Organizational Scholarship and Positive Organizational Behavior, both of which investigate the mechanisms through which positive psychological resources enhance employee well-being and performance (Luthans & Youssef-Morgan, 2017).

Recent meta-analytic findings indicate that positive psychological interventions can significantly improve employee well-being, resilience, work engagement, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment (Carr et al., 2021; Donaldson et al., 2024). These findings suggest that positive emotional experiences may constitute important resources for coping with occupational stress.

2.3. The Broaden-and-Build Theory of Positive Emotions

The theoretical foundation of the present study derives primarily from Fredrickson’s Broaden-and-Build Theory of Positive Emotions (Fredrickson, 2001).

According to this theory, positive emotions broaden individuals’ momentary thought-action repertoires, enabling them to think more creatively, flexibly, and adaptively. Over time, these broadened cognitive and behavioral tendencies facilitate the accumulation of enduring personal resources, including psychological resilience, social support, coping skills, and psychological well-being.

Unlike negative emotions, which narrow attention and prepare individuals for immediate survival-oriented responses, positive emotions encourage exploration, learning, relationship building, and personal growth (Fredrickson, 2013).

Recent neuroscientific research provides further support for this perspective. Positive emotional experiences have been linked to enhanced cognitive flexibility, improved executive functioning, greater emotional regulation capacity, and reduced physiological stress responses (Tugade et al., 2023).

Within occupational settings, positive emotions may therefore serve as psychological resources that enable employees to respond more effectively to workplace demands. Employees experiencing frequent positive emotions are likely to possess broader coping repertoires and stronger adaptive capacities when confronted with stressful situations.

2.4. Positive Emotions and Occupational Stress Coping

The relationship between positive emotions and stress coping has become one of the most active areas of contemporary positive psychology research.

Traditional stress theories emphasized problem-focused and emotion-focused coping strategies (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). More recent approaches suggest that positive emotional experiences constitute coping resources in their own right.

Research indicates that positive emotions facilitate:

• Cognitive reappraisal.
• Adaptive coping.
• Psychological flexibility.
• Solution-focused thinking.
• Social resource utilization.
• Recovery from stress.

Meta-analytic evidence demonstrates that positive affect predicts lower perceived stress and superior psychological adjustment across diverse populations (Pressman et al., 2019; Moskowitz et al., 2022).

Importantly, positive emotions do not simply co-occur with lower stress; they may actively contribute to stress reduction through several mechanisms. Positive emotions appear to accelerate physiological recovery following stressful experiences, broaden attention toward potential solutions, and strengthen social support networks (Fredrickson et al., 2024).

Recent occupational studies have similarly demonstrated that positive affect buffers the impact of job demands on employee well-being and reduces burnout vulnerability (Salanova et al., 2021; Xanthopoulou et al., 2024).

These findings suggest that positive emotions may represent an important explanatory mechanism linking psychological well-being and occupational stress outcomes.

2.5. Specific Positive Emotions and Their Differential Effects

Although positive emotions are often examined collectively, emerging evidence suggests that different positive emotions may exert distinct psychological effects.

Fredrickson (2013) identified several discrete positive emotions, including:

• Joy
• Gratitude
• Serenity
• Interest
• Hope
• Pride
• Inspiration
• Love
• Compassion
• Amusement

Recent research has increasingly emphasized the importance of examining specific positive emotions rather than relying exclusively on aggregate positive affect measures (Shiota et al., 2021).

2.5.1. Joy

Joy is associated with psychological vitality, social connectedness, and behavioral flexibility. Employees experiencing joy demonstrate greater creativity, engagement, and persistence when confronting workplace challenges (Diener et al., 2020).

2.5.2. Gratitude

Gratitude has emerged as one of the strongest predictors of psychological well-being and resilience. Studies indicate that grateful individuals report lower stress levels, stronger social relationships, and higher job satisfaction (Jans-Beken et al., 2020; Komase et al., 2021).

2.5.3. Hope

Hope contributes to goal-directed behavior and adaptive problem solving. Hopeful individuals are more likely to identify alternative pathways when confronted with obstacles and maintain motivation despite adversity (Rand & Cheavens, 2020).

2.5.4. Serenity

Serenity promotes emotional regulation and psychological balance. Research suggests that serenity may be particularly relevant for stress reduction because it facilitates calm appraisal of demanding situations (Kiken et al., 2022).

2.5.5. Love and Social Connectedness

Positive interpersonal emotions such as love and compassion contribute to social support, one of the strongest protective factors against occupational stress (Feeney & Collins, 2021).

Collectively, these findings suggest that specific positive emotions may differentially contribute to occupational stress coping.

2.6. Positive-to-Negative Emotion Ratio

An increasingly influential perspective concerns the balance between positive and negative emotional experiences.

Rather than focusing exclusively on positive emotions, researchers have proposed that emotional well-being may be better understood through the ratio of positive to negative affect (Fredrickson, 2013).

Recent evidence indicates that individuals who experience more frequent positive than negative emotions generally demonstrate:

• Greater resilience.
• Better psychological health.
• Lower stress levels.
• Enhanced work engagement.
• Improved coping effectiveness.

Although debate exists regarding the precise mathematical threshold associated with flourishing, contemporary research consistently supports the importance of emotional balance as a predictor of well-being (Brown et al., 2023).

The present study therefore examines not only positive emotions independently but also the broader positive-to-negative emotion ratio as a potential predictor of occupational stress.

2.7. Optimism as a Protective Psychological Resource

Dispositional optimism represents another important construct within positive psychology.

Optimism refers to generalized positive expectations regarding future outcomes (Carver & Scheier, 2019). Extensive research demonstrates that optimistic individuals experience lower psychological distress, superior coping effectiveness, and greater resilience when confronted with stressful events.

Recent longitudinal studies have shown that optimism predicts both lower perceived stress and improved occupational adjustment over time (Gallagher et al., 2020; Lee et al., 2024).

Because optimism has consistently emerged as a significant predictor of employee well-being, the present study includes optimism as a control variable when examining the relationship between positive emotions and occupational stress.

2.8. Research Questions and Hypotheses

Based on the literature reviewed above and the empirical findings obtained from the Greek workforce sample, the following hypotheses are proposed:

H1: 

Positive emotions will be negatively associated with occupational stress.

H2: 

The positive-to-negative emotion ratio will demonstrate a stronger association with occupational stress than positive emotions alone.

H3: 

Employees characterized by high levels of positive emotional experiences will report significantly lower occupational stress compared with employees characterized by low positive emotional experiences.

H4: 

Specific positive emotions (joy, gratitude, hope, serenity, interest, and love) will differentially predict occupational stress levels.

H5: 

The relationship between positive emotions and occupational stress will remain significant after controlling for demographic, occupational, and health-related variables.

H6. 

The positivity ratio will significantly predict occupational stress beyond motivational processes.

3. Method

3.1. Research Design

The present study employed a quantitative, cross-sectional survey design grounded in Positive Psychology and Social Psychology perspectives on occupational stress and emotional functioning. The study aimed to investigate the role of positive emotions in occupational stress coping among Greek employees and to examine whether positive emotional experiences contribute significantly to stress reduction beyond demographic, occupational, health-related, and personality-related factors.

Drawing upon Fredrickson’s Broaden-and-Build Theory (Fredrickson, 2001, 2013), the study explored the proposition that positive emotions function as psychological resources that enhance employees’ ability to cope effectively with occupational stressors.

A secondary objective was to develop an explanatory model of occupational stress incorporating positive emotions, optimism, demographic variables, and occupational characteristics.

3.2. Participants

The study sample consisted of 2,614 employed adults working in Greece across a broad spectrum of occupational sectors. Participants represented both public and private organizations and included employees occupying managerial, professional, technical, administrative, and service-related positions.

The large sample size provided substantial statistical power and allowed for detailed subgroup analyses across demographic and occupational categories.

Inclusion criteria required participants to:

• Be actively employed at the time of data collection.
• Be at least 18 years old.
• Complete all major study questionnaires.

Incomplete questionnaires were excluded from final analyses.

3.3. Measures

3.3.1. Occupational Stress

Occupational stress was assessed using the Occupational Stress Inventory—Revised (OSI-R) developed by Osipow and Spokane (1987).

The OSI-R is one of the most widely used instruments for the assessment of occupational stress and work-related strain. It is grounded in a multidimensional conceptualization of occupational stress and evaluates the interaction between occupational stressors, individual strain responses, and coping resources.

The inventory consists of three major dimensions:

• Occupational Roles Questionnaire (ORQ)
• Personal Strain Questionnaire (PSQ)
• Personal Resources Questionnaire (PRQ)

The present study focused primarily on the occupational stress dimensions of the inventory.

The Occupational Roles Questionnaire assesses six major occupational stressors:

• Role Overload
• Role Insufficiency
• Role Ambiguity
• Role Boundary
• Responsibility
• Physical Environment

Higher scores indicate greater perceived occupational stress.

The OSI-R has demonstrated satisfactory psychometric properties across numerous occupational populations and has been extensively utilized in occupational health psychology research (Osipow, 1998).

3.3.2. Positive Emotions

Positive emotional experiences were assessed using the Differential Emotions Scale—Modified (DES-MOD).

The DES-MOD is based on the original Differential Emotions Theory developed by Izard (1977) and was later adapted for positive psychology research examining discrete emotional experiences.

The instrument has been widely used in studies investigating positive and negative emotional states and their associations with well-being, coping, resilience, and psychological functioning.

The DES-MOD assesses the frequency and intensity of discrete emotional experiences and allows the calculation of both positive and negative affective dimensions.

For the purposes of the present study, the following positive emotions were examined:

• Joy
• Interest
• Surprise
• Hope
• Serenity
• Gratitude
• Love
• Inspiration
• Pride

Participants indicated the extent to which they had experienced each emotion during recent periods of their occupational lives.

Composite Positive Emotion Scores were computed by summing and averaging responses across positive emotion categories.

Higher scores reflected greater positive emotional experiences.

3.3.3. Negative Emotions

The DES-MOD also includes the assessment of negative emotional experiences.

Negative affect dimensions included emotions such as:

• Anger
• Anxiety
• Fear
• Sadness
• Guilt
• Shame
• Disgust

A composite Negative Emotion Score was calculated to represent participants’ overall negative affective experiences.

3.3.4. Positive-to-Negative Emotion Ratio

Following recommendations derived from Fredrickson’s positive psychology framework (Fredrickson & Losada, 2005; Fredrickson, 2013), a positivity ratio was calculated by dividing the composite positive emotion score by the composite negative emotion score.

The Positive-to-Negative Emotion Ratio was examined as a potential indicator of emotional flourishing and psychological adaptation.

Higher scores indicated greater predominance of positive emotional experiences relative to negative emotions.

3.3.5. Optimism

Dispositional optimism was assessed using the Life Orientation Test-Revised (LOT-R) developed by Scheier, Carver, and Bridges (1994).

The LOT-R is one of the most frequently utilized measures of optimism in psychological and health-related research.

The instrument assesses generalized expectations regarding future outcomes and consists of items reflecting positive and negative expectations.

Higher scores indicate greater dispositional optimism.

Extensive research has demonstrated the reliability and validity of the LOT-R across diverse populations and cultural settings (Carver & Scheier, 2019).

3.3.6. Demographic and Occupational Variables

Participants provided information regarding:

• Gender
• Age
• Marital Status
• Educational Level
• Occupational Category
• Employment Sector
• Years of Work Experience
• Income Level
• Smoking Behavior
• Absenteeism
• Presence of Health Problems

These variables were included as control variables due to their established associations with occupational stress reported in previous research.

3.4. Statistical Analysis

Data analyses were conducted using contemporary statistical procedures commonly employed in occupational and organizational psychology research.

The analytical strategy consisted of five stages.

3.4.1. Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive analyses included:

• Means
• Standard Deviations
• Minimum and Maximum Scores
• Frequency Distributions
• Percentages

for all study variables.

3.4.2. Reliability Analysis

Internal consistency reliability was examined using:

• Cronbach’s alpha coefficients
• Corrected item-total correlations

for the OSI-R, DES-MOD, and LOT-R scales.

3.4.3. Correlational Analysis

Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients were computed to examine relationships among:

• Occupational Stress
• Positive Emotions
• Negative Emotions
• Positive-to-Negative Emotion Ratio
• Optimism

3.4.4. Group Comparisons

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) procedures were used to compare occupational stress levels across positive emotion categories.

Post hoc comparisons employed Tamhane’s T2 tests when assumptions of variance homogeneity were violated.

3.4.5. Multivariate Analysis

To investigate predictors of occupational stress, hierarchical multiple regression analyses were performed.

Variables were entered in four sequential blocks:

Block 1: Demographic Variables

• Gender
• Age
• Education
• Marital Status

Block 2: Occupational Variables

• Occupation
• Sector
• Work Experience
• Income

Block 3: Health and Lifestyle Variables

• Health Problems
• Smoking
• Absenteeism

Block 4: Positive Psychology Variables

• Positive Emotions
• Negative Emotions
• Positivity Ratio
• Optimism

Additional binary logistic regression analyses were specified to identify factors predicting membership in high-stress occupational groups.

Chi-square analyses were also proposed to examine categorical associations between emotional flourishing levels and occupational stress categories.

3.5. Ethical Considerations

Participation was voluntary and anonymous.

All participants provided informed consent before completing the questionnaires.

The study adhered to the ethical standards of psychological research and complied with the principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki regarding research involving human participants.

Confidentiality and anonymity were maintained throughout all stages of data collection, analysis, and reporting.

4. Results

4.1. Sample Characteristics

The final sample consisted of 2,614 Greek employees representing a broad range of occupational sectors and hierarchical positions. Women comprised 58.2% of the sample, whereas men represented 41.8%. Participants were employed in both the public and private sectors, with private-sector employees constituting the largest occupational category (42.1%). Most respondents occupied first- or middle-level positions within their organizations. Regarding educational attainment, more than half of the participants held a university degree.

Table 1. Sample Characteristics.

Variable	n	%
Gender
Male	1,159	41.8
Female	1,615	58.2
Occupation
Private-sector employees	1,149	42.1
Public-sector employees	640	23.5
Physicians	71	2.6
Lawyers	44	1.6
Security personnel	56	2.1
Self-employed professionals	80	2.9
Psychologists	31	1.2
Other occupations	656	24.0
Occupational Level
First level	990	40.0
Middle level	1,129	45.6
Senior level	353	14.4
Marital Status
Single	1,413	51.5
Married	1,174	42.8
Divorced	157	5.7
Educational Level
Junior high school	115	4.4
High school	565	21.4
Vocational education	326	12.5
University degree	1,365	51.7
Master’s degree	212	8.0
Doctoral degree	52	2.0

Note. Percentages may not total 100 due to missing values across variables.

Table 1. Sample Characteristics.

Variable	n	%
Gender
Male	1,159	41.8
Female	1,615	58.2
Occupation
Private-sector employees	1,149	42.1
Public-sector employees	640	23.5
Physicians	71	2.6
Lawyers	44	1.6
Security personnel	56	2.1
Self-employed professionals	80	2.9
Psychologists	31	1.2
Other occupations	656	24.0
Occupational Level
First level	990	40.0
Middle level	1,129	45.6
Senior level	353	14.4
Marital Status
Single	1,413	51.5
Married	1,174	42.8
Divorced	157	5.7
Educational Level
Junior high school	115	4.4
High school	565	21.4
Vocational education	326	12.5
University degree	1,365	51.7
Master’s degree	212	8.0
Doctoral degree	52	2.0

Note. Percentages may not total 100 due to missing values across variables.

4.2. Correlational Analyses

Pearson product–moment correlations were conducted to examine the relationships among occupational stress, positive emotions, and the positivity ratio.

Consistent with Hypothesis 1, positive emotions were significantly and negatively associated with occupational stress, indicating that employees who experienced more frequent positive emotions reported lower levels of occupational stress (r = −.39, p < .001).

Supporting Hypothesis 2, the positivity ratio demonstrated an even stronger inverse association with occupational stress (r = −.53, p < .001), suggesting that emotional balance may represent a more powerful correlate of occupational well-being than positive emotions alone.

Table 2. Correlations Among Occupational Stress, Positive Emotions, and Positivity Ratio.

Variable	1	2	3
1. Occupational Stress	—
2. Positive Emotions	−.39***	—
3. Positivity Ratio	−.53***	.65***	—

Note. Pearson product–moment correlations. Positive emotions–stress: N = 2,383. Positivity ratio–stress: N = 2,165. **p < .001.

Table 2. Correlations Among Occupational Stress, Positive Emotions, and Positivity Ratio.

Variable	1	2	3
1. Occupational Stress	—
2. Positive Emotions	−.39***	—
3. Positivity Ratio	−.53***	.65***	—

Note. Pearson product–moment correlations. Positive emotions–stress: N = 2,383. Positivity ratio–stress: N = 2,165. **p < .001.

To further examine the robustness of these findings, partial correlations were computed while controlling for gender, age, marital status, educational level, occupational category, organizational level, smoking behavior, absenteeism, health problems, work experience, and dispositional optimism.

The relationship between positive emotions and occupational stress remained statistically significant (r = −.287, p < .001), as did the relationship between positivity ratio and occupational stress (r = −.441, p < .001). Notably, dispositional optimism emerged as the strongest modifying factor.

Table 3. Partial Correlations Between Emotional Variables and Occupational Stress After Controlling for Demographic, Occupational, and Health Variables.

Variable	Partial r	p
Positive Emotions	−.287	< .001
Positivity Ratio	−.441	< .001

Note. Partial correlations controlled for gender, age, marital status, educational level, occupational category, organizational level, smoking behavior, absenteeism, health problems, work experience, and dispositional optimism.

Table 3. Partial Correlations Between Emotional Variables and Occupational Stress After Controlling for Demographic, Occupational, and Health Variables.

Variable	Partial r	p
Positive Emotions	−.287	< .001
Positivity Ratio	−.441	< .001

Note. Partial correlations controlled for gender, age, marital status, educational level, occupational category, organizational level, smoking behavior, absenteeism, health problems, work experience, and dispositional optimism.

4.3. Occupational Stress Across Emotional Balance Groups

To test Hypothesis 3, participants were categorized into four groups according to their overall emotional balance. A one-way analysis of variance revealed significant differences in occupational stress levels among these groups, F(3, 2056) = 269.78, p < .001.

Employees characterized by predominantly positive emotional experiences reported substantially lower occupational stress than employees experiencing predominantly negative emotional states.

Table 4. Occupational Stress Across Emotional Balance Groups.

Emotional Balance Group	n	M	SD
Predominantly Negative Emotions	111	57.45	11.83
Neutral Emotional Balance	731	44.50	11.39
Mild Positive Emotional Balance	760	37.37	9.76
Strong Positive Emotional Balance	458	31.97	8.01

Note. One-way analysis of variance indicated significant group differences, F(3, 2056) = 269.78, p < .001. Post hoc comparisons were conducted using Tamhane’s T2 procedure.

Table 4. Occupational Stress Across Emotional Balance Groups.

Emotional Balance Group	n	M	SD
Predominantly Negative Emotions	111	57.45	11.83
Neutral Emotional Balance	731	44.50	11.39
Mild Positive Emotional Balance	760	37.37	9.76
Strong Positive Emotional Balance	458	31.97	8.01

Note. One-way analysis of variance indicated significant group differences, F(3, 2056) = 269.78, p < .001. Post hoc comparisons were conducted using Tamhane’s T2 procedure.

These findings indicate a clear dose–response relationship between emotional balance and occupational stress. As the predominance of positive emotional experiences increased, employees reported progressively lower levels of occupational stress.

4.4. Discrete Positive Emotions and Occupational Stress

Hypothesis 4 proposed that specific positive emotions would differ in their associations with occupational stress.

A one-way ANOVA comparing discrete positive emotion categories yielded statistically significant differences in occupational stress levels, F(10, 1613) = 4.43, p < .001.

Employees reporting serenity exhibited the lowest levels of occupational stress (M = 34.18, SD = 9.42), followed by joy (M = 34.94, SD = 9.58). By contrast, gratitude (M = 40.54, SD = 11.28) and compassion (M = 40.97, SD = 13.69) were associated with comparatively higher stress scores.

Table 5. Differences in Occupational Stress Across Discrete Positive Emotions.

Positive Emotion	M	SD
Serenity	34.18	9.42
Joy	34.94	9.58
Gratitude	40.54	11.28
Compassion	40.97	13.69

Note. Significant differences were observed among discrete positive emotions, F(10, 1613) = 4.43, p < .001. Employees characterized by serenity and joy reported lower occupational stress compared with those characterized by gratitude and compassion.

Table 5. Differences in Occupational Stress Across Discrete Positive Emotions.

Positive Emotion	M	SD
Serenity	34.18	9.42
Joy	34.94	9.58
Gratitude	40.54	11.28
Compassion	40.97	13.69

Note. Significant differences were observed among discrete positive emotions, F(10, 1613) = 4.43, p < .001. Employees characterized by serenity and joy reported lower occupational stress compared with those characterized by gratitude and compassion.

Although these findings should be interpreted cautiously, they suggest that specific positive emotions may contribute differentially to occupational stress coping.

4.5. Multiple Regression Analyses

To examine whether emotional balance predicted occupational stress and whether motivation contributed additional explanatory value, multiple regression analyses were performed.

The initial regression model demonstrated that the positivity ratio significantly predicted occupational stress, accounting for approximately 29% of the variance in occupational stress scores, R = .539, R² = .291, adjusted R² = .289, F(1, 592) = 242.62, p < .001.

When motivation was added to the model, the amount of explained variance remained virtually unchanged, R = .540, R² = .292, adjusted R² = .289, F(2, 591) = 121.74, p < .001. The increase in explained variance was not statistically significant.

Table 6. Multiple Regression Predicting Occupational Stress.

Predictor	B	SE B	β	t	p
Model 1
Constant	58.394	1.211	—	48.220	< .001
Positivity Ratio	−7.653	0.491	−.539	−15.576	< .001
Model 2
Constant	60.692	2.713	—	22.374	< .001
Positivity Ratio	−7.527	0.509	−.530	−14.781	< .001
Motivation	−0.081	0.085	−.034	−0.947	.344

Note. Dependent variable = Occupational Stress. Model 1: R = .539, R² = .291, adjusted R² = .289, F(1, 592) = 242.62, p < .001. Model 2: R = .540, R² = .292, adjusted R² = .289, F(2, 591) = 121.74, p < .001.

Table 6. Multiple Regression Predicting Occupational Stress.

Predictor	B	SE B	β	t	p
Model 1
Constant	58.394	1.211	—	48.220	< .001
Positivity Ratio	−7.653	0.491	−.539	−15.576	< .001
Model 2
Constant	60.692	2.713	—	22.374	< .001
Positivity Ratio	−7.527	0.509	−.530	−14.781	< .001
Motivation	−0.081	0.085	−.034	−0.947	.344

Note. Dependent variable = Occupational Stress. Model 1: R = .539, R² = .291, adjusted R² = .289, F(1, 592) = 242.62, p < .001. Model 2: R = .540, R² = .292, adjusted R² = .289, F(2, 591) = 121.74, p < .001.

The regression findings indicate that emotional balance constitutes a substantial predictor of occupational stress. Specifically, higher positivity ratios were associated with lower levels of occupational stress. By contrast, motivation did not explain additional variance beyond that accounted for by positivity.

4.6. Summary of Findings

Overall, the findings supported the central premise of the present study. Positive emotional experiences and, more importantly, the balance between positive and negative emotions were consistently associated with lower occupational stress. These relationships remained statistically significant even after controlling for a broad range of demographic, occupational, and health-related factors.

Employees characterized by stronger positive emotional functioning exhibited substantially lower levels of occupational stress, while serenity and joy appeared to be particularly protective emotional experiences. Furthermore, the positivity ratio emerged as a robust predictor of occupational stress, accounting for a meaningful proportion of variance in stress outcomes.

Taken together, the results provide empirical support for the proposition derived from Fredrickson’s Broaden-and-Build Theory that positive emotions function as enduring psychological resources that facilitate adaptive coping and resilience within demanding occupational environments.

5. Discussion

The present study sought to investigate the role of positive emotional experiences in occupational stress coping within a large sample of Greek employees. Grounded in Positive Psychology and Fredrickson’s Broaden-and-Build Theory, the findings consistently supported the proposition that positive emotions function as important psychological resources that facilitate adaptation to occupational demands.

Consistent with the first hypothesis, positive emotions were negatively associated with occupational stress. Employees who reported more frequent experiences of positive emotions also reported lower levels of perceived occupational stress. This finding aligns with previous evidence suggesting that positive affect contributes to adaptive coping, psychological flexibility, and enhanced well-being in demanding work environments (Moskowitz et al., 2022; Salanova et al., 2021).

Importantly, the positivity ratio demonstrated an even stronger association with occupational stress than positive emotions alone. Whereas positive emotions were moderately associated with lower stress levels, the balance between positive and negative emotional experiences emerged as a substantially stronger correlate of occupational well-being. This finding suggests that occupational adaptation may depend not only on the presence of positive emotions but also on the individual’s overall emotional ecology.

From a theoretical perspective, these findings provide empirical support for Fredrickson’s Broaden-and-Build Theory (Fredrickson, 2001, 2013). According to this framework, positive emotions broaden individuals’ momentary thought-action repertoires and facilitate the development of enduring psychological, cognitive, and social resources. Employees who frequently experience positive emotions may therefore possess broader coping repertoires that enable them to manage occupational stressors more effectively.

The persistence of the observed relationships after controlling for demographic, occupational, lifestyle, and health-related variables further strengthens the robustness of the findings. Although the magnitude of the correlations decreased following statistical adjustment, they remained statistically significant. Notably, dispositional optimism emerged as the strongest modifying factor. This finding is consistent with previous studies indicating that optimistic individuals interpret workplace demands less catastrophically, exhibit greater persistence when confronted with adversity, and employ more adaptive coping strategies (Carver & Scheier, 2019; Gallagher et al., 2020).

The analyses of discrete positive emotions yielded particularly interesting results. Employees characterized primarily by serenity and joy reported the lowest levels of occupational stress. Serenity may facilitate calm appraisal, emotional regulation, and acceptance of uncontrollable work demands, whereas joy may enhance vitality, cognitive flexibility, and social connectedness. In contrast, gratitude and compassion were associated with comparatively higher stress levels. Although these findings should be interpreted cautiously, they may reflect the relational nature of these emotions. Individuals experiencing gratitude and compassion intensely may also be those occupying caregiving, helping, or emotionally demanding roles that expose them to elevated occupational strain.

The regression analyses further highlighted the importance of emotional balance. The positivity ratio accounted for approximately 29% of the variance in occupational stress, representing a substantial effect within occupational psychology research. Interestingly, motivational processes did not explain additional variance beyond positivity. This finding suggests that emotional experiences may constitute more proximal determinants of occupational stress than general motivational tendencies.

Taken together, the findings contribute to the growing body of literature emphasizing that employee well-being cannot be conceptualized merely as the absence of distress. Rather, flourishing at work appears to involve the active cultivation of positive emotional experiences capable of buffering the impact of occupational demands. The results therefore support contemporary positive organizational approaches proposing that thriving employees are not simply less distressed but possess psychological resources that promote resilience, adaptability, and sustained functioning.

5.1. Theoretical Implications

The present study contributes to Positive Psychology by extending the application of Broaden-and-Build Theory to occupational contexts within Southern Europe. Evidence derived from large workforce samples in this cultural context remains relatively limited. The findings demonstrate that positive emotional functioning represents a meaningful explanatory mechanism in occupational stress processes beyond traditional risk-focused approaches.

Furthermore, the stronger predictive value of the positivity ratio suggests that future research should move beyond examining positive affect in isolation and instead investigate the dynamic interplay between positive and negative emotional experiences.

5.2. Practical Implications

The findings have several implications for organizational practice. Interventions designed to enhance positive emotional experiences may contribute to occupational stress reduction and employee well-being. Such interventions may include strengths-based approaches, gratitude practices, positive leadership initiatives, resilience training programs, and psychologically informed organizational policies.

Organizations should also recognize that promoting employee well-being requires more than reducing stressors. Creating workplace environments that facilitate positive interpersonal interactions, recognition, meaning, and psychological safety may foster emotional flourishing and improve employees’ capacity to cope with occupational challenges.

5.3. Limitations and Future Directions

Several limitations should be acknowledged. First, the cross-sectional design precludes causal inferences regarding the directionality of the observed relationships. Longitudinal studies are needed to determine whether positive emotions prospectively predict reductions in occupational stress over time.

Second, all measures relied on self-report methodologies, which may introduce common method variance and response biases.

Third, although the sample was large and heterogeneous, it was restricted to Greek employees. Cross-cultural investigations are required to determine the generalizability of the findings across different occupational and cultural contexts.

Finally, future research may benefit from employing longitudinal, multilevel, and experience-sampling methodologies to investigate how positive emotional experiences unfold dynamically within everyday work environments.

6. Conclusion

The present study provides evidence that positive emotions constitute important psychological resources in occupational stress coping. More importantly, the balance between positive and negative emotional experiences emerged as a particularly powerful correlate of occupational well-being. Employees who flourish emotionally appear better equipped to navigate occupational demands, adapt to adversity, and maintain psychological functioning in contemporary workplaces.

These findings underscore the importance of integrating positive psychological perspectives into occupational stress research and highlight the potential value of interventions aimed at cultivating positive emotional experiences within organizations.: