Understanding the Role of Multisensory Design in Museums to Enhance Visitors’ Experience with Language Barriers: A Case Study of Islamic Museums in Makkah, Saudi Arabia

1. Introduction

In recent decades, museums have evolved from static repositories of objects into dynamic, people-centred environments designed to foster learning, dialogue, and cross-cultural understanding. This transformation is particularly significant for Islamic museums in Makkah, which occupy a unique position at the intersection of profound religious, cultural, and linguistic diversity. Each year, millions of pilgrims and tourists converge on the city, bringing with them a wide spectrum of languages and cultural expectations [69]. The resulting linguistic mosaic, spanning Arabic, English, Bahasa Indonesia, Urdu, French, Turkish, Swahili, Hausa, Persian, and many other languages, presents a considerable challenge for curators and educators striving to make exhibitions accessible and meaningful [70].

Traditional interpretive strategies, such as multilingual labels or brochures, often fall short of providing equitable access. These methods struggle to accommodate the vast range of languages represented in global Islamic tourism and may disadvantage visitors with limited literacy in the labelling language [1]. This limitation underscores the importance of multisensory design: by engaging the full range of human senses, museums can create interpretive pathways that transcend verbal communication and foster deeper historical understanding.

Islamic tourism has emerged as a significant area of scholarly attention since 2006, with religious tourism representing one of the oldest forms of tourism that carries important socio-cultural and economic impacts. Previous research has identified key areas for development within this field, focusing on enhancing the experiences of pilgrims and visitors [2]. Islamic museums and heritage sites play a multifaceted role in cultural tourism, serving functions that extend beyond traditional exhibition spaces. Islamic heritage sites such as the Tomb of Sheikh Abdurrauf attract domestic and foreign tourists, offering both economic and cultural value to local communities and countries while providing visitors with opportunities to meet their tourism, spiritual, and educational needs [3]. The transformation of Islamic spaces such as mosques from purely religious functions to multifunctional destinations reflects their evolving role, where unique architectural elements and spiritual experiences serve as key attractions for religious tourists, though balancing their sacred function with socio-economic roles presents ongoing challenges [4,5]. Islamic tourism destinations increasingly incorporate Islamic values such as cleanliness, comfort of worship, and the sanctity of place into their infrastructure and services, with community consciousness playing a critical role in maintaining the spiritual and ethical integrity of these sites [6]. Overall, Islamic tourism and museums represent a growing sector that combines heritage preservation, religious experience, community empowerment, and sustainable economic development.

Islamic museums in Makkah, such as the Holy Quran Museum and the Two Holy Mosques Architecture Museum, are uniquely situated within both regional and global museum ecologies. These institutions bear the responsibility of representing religious heritage that holds profound significance for Muslim audiences worldwide while simultaneously adhering to local cultural and religious sensibilities. However, interpretation within these specific museums frequently relies on traditional, text-heavy exhibition labels predominantly available only in Arabic and English, with limited availability of comprehensive multilingual audio guides or translated digital interfaces for the broader international demographic. Accordingly, this study seeks to address the following research question: How do multisensory factors—encompassing visual, auditory, tactile, and olfactory elements—within Islamic museums enhance visitor comprehension, spatial engagement, and satisfaction when these specific linguistic limitations impede access to the historical context of the collections?

The remainder of this paper is organised as follows: the literature review establishes the theoretical framework; the subsequent section details the methodology and data, including the study area and variables; the findings are presented and discussed in the fourth and fifth sections; finally, recommendations and conclusions are offered.

2. Literature Review

The theoretical underpinnings of multisensory museum design rest upon a fundamental principle: that the human senses do not function in isolation but rather operate interdependently and complementarily. The senses are not merely interdependent but rather exist independently of one another while also complementing each other; the effect of multiple senses acting in concert is greater than that of a single sense, and the synesthetic experience is of particular significance in the context of multisensory design [7,8,9]. This synesthetic framework proves particularly valuable for museums serving visitors who lack linguistic fluency in the primary interpretive language, as multisensory combinations can communicate meaning through channels beyond verbal language.

Multisensory perception activities collectively regulate human movement and behaviour in the environment, illustrating that in multisensory design, the integration of different senses is essential for optimal effect, rather than their operation in isolation. At the material level, information is conveyed directly through the senses of sight and hearing; at the behavioural level, the interactive design arouses user habits and stimulates emotional resonance; and at the spiritual level, cultural information and emotional elements are incorporated [7,10]. This multi-layered model is particularly relevant to Islamic museums where collections frequently contain objects imbued with spiritual and cultural significance.

2.1. Visual and Auditory Synergies

Visual–auditory combinations represent the most established and prevalent multisensory pairing in museum environments. Visual–auditory combinations have been shown to significantly enhance environmental realism and emotional arousal, haptic feedback deepens cognitive engagement by enhancing interactive realism and behavioural control, and olfactory cues enhance cultural ambience perception by triggering emotional memory [11,12]. In the context of Islamic museums, such combinations can communicate historical narratives and cultural contexts without depending on written or spoken interpretation in a single language.

The efficacy of auditory perception in enhancing experiences has been substantiated in a multitude of disciplines. Audio design extends beyond the mere provision of background sound and employs alterations in the direction and volume of the sound source to augment user immersion, while the synchronisation of sound with visuals has been demonstrated to facilitate emotional response enhancement [13,14]. For Islamic museums, this might manifest as ambient recitations of Quranic verses, traditional call to prayer (adhan), or instrumental compositions contextualised within historical periods represented in collections, all of which can communicate cultural meaning to Muslim visitors regardless of textual comprehension in another language.

2.2. Visual Perception and Emotional Response

Museums are at the forefront of places that can touch memories and mediate emotions; experiences that enhance interaction between the museum and its visitors significantly contribute to engaging the visitors’ memories. A previous study revealed that the deep curiosity toward places associated with spiritual and historical significance shapes how visitors interact with and experience these sites, thereby delineating the impact of cultural and visual elements on visitor experiences in museums [15]. The visual presentation of Islamic artefacts, calligraphy, architectural elements, manuscripts, and decorative objects itself communicates meaning grounded in Islamic aesthetic principles and spiritual tradition.

Colours play an essential role in a visitor’s perception of a museum; colour serves as a gateway to engage visitors emotionally with the museum. Visitors may expect museums to provide experiences that extend beyond seeing and observing, potentially incorporating elements aligned with their cultural or spiritual expectations that permit them to experience emotions in the museum [16]. In Islamic museums, the deliberate use of colours significant to Islamic tradition, blues, greens, and golds, alongside the aesthetic principles embedded in Islamic design, creates visual harmony that resonates with Muslim visitors’ cultural memory [71].

2.3. Auditory Elements and Narrative Construction

Storytelling or narrative approaches that focus on three to four key messages that are clearly communicated in shows and presentations, combining solution- and behaviour-oriented messages with informative messages, prove particularly effective, while conversations are particularly effective when educators create a personal connection between the visitor and the exhibit [19,20]. In Islamic museums, audio narratives can be constructed to convey the historical, spiritual, and artistic significance of collections through sound design rather than textual description—employing period-appropriate music, environmental soundscapes, and guided audio descriptions in multiple languages.

AI-powered layered storytelling systems allow communities to contribute oral histories, ambient audio, and archival imagery, where virtual tours could be dynamically adapted, translated, or personalised based on users’ cultural or linguistic backgrounds [21]. For Islamic museums serving diverse Muslim communities, multilingual audio guides contextualised through sound effects, recitation, and ambient sound can provide interpretation accessible to visitors regardless of their native language or literacy level in the museum’s primary interpretive language.

2.4. Tactile and Olfactory Engagement

The latest generation of haptic feedback technology can convey pressure, vibration, or temperature changes to the user via a wearable device or sensor and is particularly suited for applications in virtual environments. Meanwhile, the olfactory sense is distinctive in its capacity to evoke emotional and memory-related responses, with new olfactory technologies facilitating the release of specific odours in real time during experiences, thereby enabling visitors to more naturally associate the exhibition theme with relevant situations [17,18]. While this passage focuses on technology, it highlights a broadly applicable principle: multisensory cues can anchor meaning without language.

Three-dimensional multi-visualisation augments the perception of physical characteristics of artefacts, allowing a more embodied experience with objects: the Prado Museum in Madrid offers a touchable exhibition of paintings from Da Vinci and other famous artists, allowing all visitors including the blind and visually impaired to touch and sense in a new way; 3D-printed replicas of cultural objects enhanced with sensors allow blind users to touch and feel replicas to hear respective audio descriptions [22,23]. While complete handling of original Islamic artefacts is typically constrained by conservation requirements, the strategic creation of replicas, high-precision 3D-printed reproductions of calligraphy, architectural details, and decorative elements enables Muslim visitors to engage tactilely with visual traditions central to Islamic heritage.

New olfactory technologies facilitate the release of specific odours in real time during experiences, thereby enabling visitors to more naturally associate the exhibition theme with relevant situations; the sense of taste and olfaction is unique in its capacity to elicit emotional responses and memories [24,25]. Islamic museums can leverage olfactory design through strategically deployed scents associated with Islamic cultural practice and heritage, such as the scent of oud (agarwood), rose, incense, or other fragrances integral to Islamic traditions. These olfactory cues can evoke emotional memory and cultural familiarity, anchoring visitors’ experiences in their own heritage without requiring verbal explanation.

Participants in a previous study noted scents as elements that evoke feelings and contribute to museum atmosphere, although stressed that these should be compatible with the museum space and exhibition theme. The placement of digital tools in the museum space should take into consideration certain factors such as spatial design, and all participants pointed out the importance of lighting, sound, colours, music, and flooring, as well as scent [26,27,28]. The intentional orchestration of olfactory elements within Islamic museum spaces creates a multisensory environment wherein meaning and emotional resonance transcend linguistic boundaries.

2.5. Emotion, Memory, and Cultural Identity

For Muslim visitors encountering Islamic heritage, emotional engagement with collections frequently encompasses spiritual and cultural dimensions extending beyond secular aesthetic appreciation. Museums are more than collections, exhibitions, and programmes; museums play an important role not only in preserving history and providing education but also in offering emotional experiences that foster awareness and understanding in society. Museums’ spatial features, including formal, structural, fictional, visual, auditory, and tactile elements, affect users’ emotional states [29,30]. In Islamic museums, these elements can be calibrated to elicit emotional and spiritual responses congruent with Muslim visitors’ relationship to the heritage represented.

Heritage becomes an inclusive resource capable of enhancing cultural diversity and personal stories; heritage education succeeds in fostering deep educational relationships not only between educators and visitors but also with the local community, offering young people a sense of identity and belonging. The didactic use of cultural and environmental heritage stimulates the direct participation of students in projects and activities that enhance the territory and local culture, creating a meaningful link between the individual and their environment [31,32]. Multisensory museum design can facilitate this sense of cultural belonging and identity affirmation for Muslim visitors, which is particularly important when language barriers might otherwise create distance between visitors and interpretation.

Quiet spaces aid in emotional processing, which is crucial for learning and engagement: visitors’ emotions are influenced by personal and community contexts as well as the museum’s physical context, while quiet spaces offer a calming ambience for visitors to process emotions and reengage thoughtfully and empathetically with museum content [33,34]. As a design recommendation supported by broader architectural literature, the provision of contemplative spaces, prayer rooms, areas for quiet reflection, and spaces designed around traditional Islamic spatial principles enables Muslim visitors to integrate emotional and spiritual responses to collections within a framework aligned with their own cultural and religious practices [72].

2.6. Inclusion and Visitor-Centred Design

A curator can shape an audience’s opinions by altering environmental and psychological factors; shades of colour, tone of voice, the gallery’s comfort, the ease or difficulty of reading or understanding text are elements that impact visitor attitudes. Everything around an object has an impact on how the visitor reacts, interprets, and assimilates the presentation [35]. For visitors facing language barriers, the careful orchestration of environmental variables becomes the primary vehicle for interpretation.

A visitor’s experience is shaped by their personal, social, and physical context; these contexts are interconnected and may change during a visit, affecting the visitor’s personal response to their experience. Various environmental elements, such as lighting, noise, layout, design, furnishings, and crowdedness, affect the overall museum experience and satisfaction [36]. Islamic museums serving Muslim visitors should recognise the diverse personal and social contexts visitors bring—varying levels of religious observance, linguistic backgrounds, educational experience, and relationship to Islamic heritage—and design multisensory environments flexible enough to accommodate these variations.

Multiple culturally based contextual barriers reinforce gaps in museum communication: a cultural disparity exists between educational philosophies and cultural pedagogical norms; museum educators have difficulty in interacting with different visitors and must respect cultural sensitivity; and social interaction exists between people, with individuals demonstrating defensive and refusal gestures, which represents a form of interacting with others [37]. For Muslim visitors encountering Islamic heritage in museum contexts, culturally responsive multisensory design acknowledges potential tensions between Western museum conventions and Islamic cultural and religious values, creating spaces and interpretive approaches that feel authentically aligned with visitors’ own cultural frameworks.

Digital heritage documentation continues to face a semantic gap: object-centred records can capture materials and techniques yet often fail to convey the contextual meanings, memories, and socio-cultural relationships that define the character of heritage. Participatory storytelling enables communities to contribute not only content but also interpretation, repositioning digital heritage platforms as environments for collaborative interpretation and co-production of cultural meaning [38,39]. Islamic museums might engage Muslim communities in the co-creation of multisensory interpretations, selecting music, designing olfactory elements, determining spatial arrangements, and ensuring that sensory design reflects authentic cultural values and meanings [73].

2.7. Information Perception and Cognitive Integration

Information reception, which measures cultural understanding through optimised information delivery via multisensory interactions such as simultaneous audio–visual narration, and memory retention, which measures information durability after the experience, enhanced by contextualised memory encoding through immersive technologies, provide a structured framework for analysing the effects of multisensory design on knowledge internalisation. Multisensory interaction design enhances immersion and emotional engagement in digital museums by integrating visual, auditory, tactile, and olfactory sensory channels with a synergetic effect [40,41,42]. When language barriers limit visitors’ ability to process textual information, multisensory input provides alternative cognitive pathways for understanding collection content and historical context.

Several dimensions characterise museum experiences: entertaining experiences enhance fun and participation duration through interactive exhibits, educational experiences promote knowledge internalisation through VR scene reconstruction and multisensory interpretation, aesthetic experiences rely on high-precision 3D modelling and light and shadow sound effects to enhance visual art perception, and serendipitous experiences trigger emotional resonance through associative design. Different types of multisensory combinations have a significant positive impact on digital museum visiting experience [39,40]. Islamic museums can structure visitor experiences across these dimensions, leveraging multisensory elements to advance educational and aesthetic goals even when visitors lack linguistic access to conventional verbal interpretation.

2.8. Emerging Technologies and Immersive Experiences

Advancements in digital technology have enabled the production of head-mounted display-based digital cultural heritage virtual reality content that provides immersive experiences through audio–visual interaction in a three-dimensional virtual space; HMD-based multisensory virtual museum experiences increase the feeling of presence by giving tactile sensations in addition to auditory and visual senses. Experimental results have shown that HMD-based multisensory virtual museums enhance realism as users can naturally touch and feel the presence of artefacts through bare-hand interaction and that immersion and preference are enhanced through the novel multisensory experience [43,44]. For Islamic museums, XR technologies could enable Muslim visitors to experience historical Islamic architectural and artistic contexts multisensorially, virtually reconstructing lost or inaccessible heritage sites, enabling tactile engagement with replicated artefacts, and positioning interpretation through spatial audio in multiple languages.

Extended reality tools are increasingly used to revitalise museum experiences; XR exhibitions, wherein co-presence, embodied action, and multisensory cues are treated as primary design goals, foster collaboration and deepen engagement, with the system’s capacity to foster collaboration showing how XR can move museum audiences from isolated immersion to collective, multisensory exploration [45,46]. In Islamic museums, such collective multisensory experiences could facilitate community-oriented engagement, allowing groups of Muslim visitors to share interpretive encounters grounded in cultural values emphasising communal knowledge and shared heritage.

While research extensively documents the efficacy of multisensory museum design in general contexts, two significant gaps exist in the current literature regarding its application in Islamic heritage settings. Firstly, most of the existing literature on sensory museum interpretation originates from Western, secular contexts, offering limited applicability to specifically Islamic heritage institutions. Research examining how Islamic aesthetic traditions, the spiritual dimensions of heritage engagement, and specific Muslim cultural values can be formally integrated into multisensory spatial design remains notably underdeveloped. The second gap concerns accessibility and language barriers. Although previous research addresses general visitor communication challenges, scholarship specifically examining how multisensory elements can compensate for language barriers in heritage contexts is limited. The majority of current museum accessibility studies focus on literacy, visual impairment, or sensory processing differences rather than the immediate needs of linguistically diverse visitor populations. Consequently, the intersection of multisensory design and linguistic accessibility within religious museum contexts requires much deeper investigation.

3. Methods and Case Study

This study employs a mixed-methods research design to evaluate the intersection of multisensory curation, spatial architecture, and qualitative visitor experience within Islamic museums. The methodology integrates quantitative survey data to measure sensory impact alongside a qualitative thematic analysis of visitor feedback.

A structured questionnaire was developed based on previous research and translated into six languages: Bahasa Indonesia, Urdu, Turkish, Swahili, Persian, and Hausa. These specific languages were selected because they represent the most prominent linguistic demographics among non-Arabic-speaking religious tourists and pilgrims visiting Makkah, thereby ensuring the survey captured a statistically significant and culturally diverse cross-section of international visitors [69]. The survey was designed to assess four primary objectives: (1) sociodemographic profiling of visitors, (2) examining the role of multisensory elements on visitor experience and satisfaction, (3) determining the probability of repeat visitation, and (4) qualifying visitors’ experience in the museum using open-ended questions.

A structured questionnaire was developed to assess sociodemographic profiles, the impacts of multisensory elements (visual, tactile/haptic, auditory, and olfactory), revisit probability, and qualitative constraints. Responses were measured using a five-point Likert scale (from 1—“Not at all important” to 5—“Very important”) alongside yes/no and open-ended questions.

A pilot study involving 10 international visitors, representing a cross-section of the target linguistic demographics, was conducted to evaluate the cultural and semantic appropriateness of the questionnaire. To ensure the integrity of the main dataset, the responses from these pilot participants were excluded from the final study sample. The survey investigating visitor experience was developed from similar previous research [3,47,48,49]. The instrument was subsequently translated into six languages (Bahasa Indonesia, Urdu, Turkish, Swahili, Persian, and Hausa) using standardised forward- and back-translation procedures. Each translated version was then reviewed by two independent linguistic experts to ensure semantic accuracy, cultural appropriateness, and conceptual equivalence with the original instrument.

Surveys were administered via tablets to international visitors on-site at four major Islamic museums in Makkah: The Holy Qur’an Museum, the Two Holy Mosques Architecture Museum, Dar Al-Kiswa, and the Clock Tower Museum. Data collection was conducted over five months from January to May 2026. A purposive sampling strategy was employed; research assistants stationed near the exits approached visitors who had fully completed their museum tour, ensuring responses reflected the complete exhibition experience.

Initial data collection yielded 470 completed surveys. The distribution of these responses across the four sites was as follows: The Holy Qur’an Museum (103 persons), the Two Holy Mosques Architecture Museum (123 persons), Dar Al-Kiswa (92 persons), and the Clock Tower Museum (152 persons). Following a multi-stage cleaning process to assess completeness and internal consistency, 321 surveys (68.30% valid response rate) were retained for analysis. The remaining 31.70% were excluded due to incomplete or missing items, inconsistent responses, language-related misunderstandings, or demographic profiles that did not align with the study’s defined target population, specifically, non-Arabic-speaking, international adult religious tourists and pilgrims over the age of 18.

Statistical evaluation utilised confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to validate the underlying factor structure of multisensory design as established in previous literature. Reliability was assessed for each sensory factor using the full sample, with Cronbach’s alpha ($\alpha \ge 0.70$) applied as the threshold for internal consistency. To analyse the predictors of repeat visitation, a binary logistic regression was performed. For this analysis, revisit intention was coded dichotomously; responses indicating “Not sure” were combined with “No” to create a strict “Yes vs. Other” binary. Qualitative responses, comprising 124 valid open-ended comments, were analysed across the six translated languages. To preserve original nuance, initial coding was conducted after all responses were translated into English by translators. Reflexive thematic analysis was employed following Braun and Clarke’s six-phase framework, utilising inductive coding, iterative theme refinement, and reflexive memoing to ensure analytic transparency [48,51]. Trustworthiness was strengthened through cross-language validation conducted by the primary researcher and two bilingual research assistants for each language, with any coding disagreements resolved through consensus meetings. Peer debriefing was utilized throughout the theme refinement phase to challenge initial interpretations and ensure the final themes accurately reflected the data rather than researcher bias. Triangulation of these qualitative themes with the quantitative findings enabled the methodology to capture both statistical patterns and the lived experiential dimensions of multisensory engagement in Islamic museums.

3.1. The Case Studies

To conduct this research, four major Islamic museums in Makkah were purposively selected for analysis: the Holy Qur’an Museum, the Two Holy Mosques Architecture Museum, Dar Al-Kiswa, and the Clock Tower Museum. These museums were chosen because they collectively represent a diverse spectrum of curatorial philosophies, interpretive strategies, and multisensory design practices. The subsequent descriptions and analyses of these four sites are based on a synthesis of the researchers’ personal on-site observations and information provided by the museums’ official institutional websites. Each institution employs distinct approaches to spatial storytelling and sensory engagement, and its collections reflect varied historical narratives and thematic priorities. Together, they provide a robust comparative context for examining how multisensory elements are integrated into Islamic museum environments.

3.1.1. Clock Tower Museum

The Clock Tower Museum in Makkah masterfully choreographs a multisensory sequence that transitions from highly engineered digital curation to visceral environmental exposure. From an auditory perspective, the interior galleries utilise an immersive, ambient soundscape to evoke the vastness of the cosmos, which is starkly contrasted by the macro-acoustic resonance of the massive exterior Adhan speakers that physically vibrate the tower’s structure. The tactile and haptic journey follows a similar trajectory; visitors initially engage with educational touchscreens and physical models of ancient horological instruments before experiencing the raw, environmental haptics of high-altitude wind and temperature shifts on the 480 m open-air terrace. Deliberately acting as an olfactory void, the heavily filtered, climate-controlled interior lacks a programmed scent narrative, a strategic sensory deprivation that prevents distraction and ensures that the final, multisensory shock of stepping onto the observation deck overlooking the Grand Mosque delivers maximum spatial and emotional impact.

3.1.2. Two Holy Mosques Architecture Museum

The exhibition at the Two Holy Mosques Architecture Museum presents a unique multisensory duality, contrasting the static preservation of monumental artefacts with cutting-edge digital interventions. From a tactile and haptic perspective, the physical architectural relics, such as the ancient Kaaba columns and monumental brass doors, are visually imposing but restricted from touch to preserve their historical integrity; however, this tactile void is bridged by the pioneering Virtual Black Stone Initiative, which employs advanced haptic feedback to allow visitors to physically “feel” the sacred structure. This digital environment is reinforced by an auditory soundscape that temporarily replaces the hushed, reverent acoustics of the physical relic galleries with the immersive, ambient echoes of the bustling Mataf courtyard. To complete the spatial narrative and ground the simulation in reality, the exhibition incorporates a highly engineered olfactory layer, actively diffusing the precise oud and bakhoor blends traditionally applied to the actual Black Stone, demonstrating how targeted multisensory curation can elevate traditional architectural preservation into a deeply embodied visitor experience.

3.1.3. Holy Qur’an Museum

The Holy Qur’an Museum in the Hira Cultural District orchestrates a sensory experience that leans heavily on advanced digital storytelling rather than organic environmental stimuli. From an auditory perspective, the space surrounds visitors with highly immersive, realistic soundscapes designed to accurately simulate the acoustic atmosphere of Jabal Al-Nour and the profound weight of the first revelation. The tactile and haptic engagement is predominantly technological, driven by interactive touchscreens and the physical feedback of 4D cinematic environments rather than the raw textures of historical artefacts. Because the curatorial focus is placed so firmly on high-fidelity visual and auditory immersion, the exhibition lacks a formally programmed olfactory narrative within the gallery halls; instead of an engineered scent profile, the olfactory experience remains largely incidental, drawing from the ambient bukhoor and natural aromas drifting in from the broader commercial and heritage corridors of the surrounding cultural district.

3.1.4. Dar Al-Kiswa

The King Abdulaziz Complex for Holy Kaaba Kiswa (Dar Al-Kiswa) offers the most organically immersive, process-driven sensory experience among Makkah’s cultural institutions. Rather than engaging solely with static museum-style exhibits, the visitors in this sample observed [insert specific viewing context, e.g., the actual active production areas / live artisan demonstrations from designated viewing galleries], shifting the overall curatorial focus to living craftsmanship. From a tactile and haptic perspective, the spatial layout emphasises the raw materiality of the sacred cloth. While visitors may not directly handle the finished Kiswa, the environment vividly projects the heavy textures of raw silk, the tension of the looms, and the meticulous, physical resistance of embroidering thick gold and silver threads into raised calligraphic panels. This haptic intensity is framed by a highly rhythmic auditory soundscape, characterised by the hypnotic, mechanical clacking of both traditional wooden and modern automated jacquard looms, and layered with the quiet, focused environment of the hand-embroidery halls. Unifying this industrial space is a profound, authentic olfactory signature. Rather than an engineered museum scent, the factory is permeated by the natural aromas of raw textile dyes, the metallic tang of wire work, and the heavy, ambient traces of premium oud and musk, grounding the highly technical production process directly into the deep sensory identity of the Grand Mosque.

4. Result

The survey yielded data (Table 1) from 321 international visitors representing diverse educational backgrounds and linguistic groups. The respondents spoke six non-Arabic languages: Indonesian/Malay (45), Urdu (38), Hausa (39), Swahili (92), Turkish (44), and Persian (54). Among the participants, 223 were first-time visitors, and 249 expressed willingness to revisit the museums surveyed.

4.1. Quantitative Results

A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted to evaluate the hypothesised four-factor structure of the sensory experience scale, comprising the visual, touch, sound, and smell dimensions (N = 321); the results are presented in Table 2. Using maximum likelihood estimation, the model demonstrated a strong psychometric performance across all factors. Internal consistency reliability was exceptionally high, with Cronbach’s alpha coefficients of visual (α = 0.994), touch (α = 0.989), sound (α = 0.987), and smell (α = 0.979), indicating excellent scale precision. Composite reliability (CR) values also exceeded the recommended threshold of 0.70, further confirming reliability: visual (CR = 0.993), touch (CR = 0.988), sound (CR = 0.986), and smell (CR = 0.979).

Convergent validity was supported by high average variance extracted (AVE) values, all surpassing the 0.50 benchmark [74]. The visual (AVE = 0.978), touch (AVE = 0.965), sound (AVE = 0.960), and smell (AVE = 0.939) factors each explained more than 90% of the variance in their respective indicators, demonstrating exceptionally strong convergence. Factor loadings were uniformly high (λ > 0.95), and the proportion of variance explained by each indicator (R² > 0.91) confirmed that the measurement model was well specified.

Overall, the CFA results provide robust support for the four-factor structure of the sensory experience scale. The visual, touch, sound, and smell dimensions emerged as distinct yet related constructs, each exhibiting excellent reliability, strong convergent validity, and adequate discriminant validity. These findings confirm that the sensory experience scale is a psychometrically sound instrument for assessing multisensory engagement in Islamic museum contexts.

The binary logistic regression model in Table 3 significantly predicted museum revisit intention, ${\chi }^2\left(4\right)=113.20$, $p<0.001$, with Nagelkerke $R^2=0.486$ indicating that the model explains approximately 48.6% of the variance. Touch is the only significant predictor of museum revisit intention. For each one-unit increase in the touch sensory experience score, the odds of a visitor intending to revisit the museum increase by 24.70 times (OR = 24.70, 95% CI [10.31–59.18], $p<0.001$). While this represents a remarkably strong effect, such a high odds ratio should be interpreted with contextual caution; it likely reflects a degree of statistical skew or quasi-complete separation in the data, wherein visitors who highly rated their tactile experience almost universally expressed an intention to revisit. Additionally, because the sensory experience was measured on a 5-point Likert scale, a single-unit increase represents a massive categorical leap in the visitor’s physical engagement. Nevertheless, the underlying finding robustly aligns with research demonstrating that sensory experience significantly influences visitor engagement behavior, with tactile elements playing a crucial role in creating memorable experiences [52,53]. The predominance of tactile engagement over other sensory modalities can be attributed to the distinctive nature of haptic interaction. Unlike visual or auditory stimuli, which can be absorbed passively, touch requires deliberate, embodied participation, producing deeper cognitive processing and stronger emotional encoding that more effectively shapes future behavioral intentions.

The demographic analysis results revealed that age positively correlated with tactile preference. A Spearman’s rank correlation test was conducted to assess the relationship between age group (five ordinal categories) and tactile experience ratings (N = 321). Preliminary checks were conducted to ensure this relationship was not confounded by language group, first-time visit status, or the specific museum visited; the age effect remained robust across these variables. There was a strong, positive, monotonic correlation between age group and touch experience, $r_s\left(319\right)=0.86$, $p<0.001$, indicating that older visitors rated tactile museum experiences significantly higher than younger visitors. Because the variables are ordinal, calculating the squared Spearman correlation ($r_s^2$) provides a pseudo-measure of effect size, suggesting that age group ranks explain approximately 74.0% of the variance in the ranked touch experience ratings ($r_s^2=0.740$). Touch experience ratings increased consistently from the youngest to the oldest age groups. Table 4 shows that the mean score rose from M = 2.43 (SD = 0.50) for ages 18–29 to M = 4.88 (SD = 0.28) for ages 60+ (Δ = 2.45 points on a 5-point scale). Older age groups (40–49, 50–59, 60+) showed notably lower variability in touch ratings (SD = 0.08–0.28), indicating more uniform responses compared to younger visitors

This research found that cultural backgrounds can also influence visitors’ perception and ratings of multisensory dimensions (visual, auditory, tactile, and olfactory) in museum experiences (Table 5). Shapiro–Wilk tests indicated that all group–dimension combinations violated the assumption of normality ($p<0.05$), and Levene’s tests revealed heterogeneous variances across cultural groups for all sensory dimensions ($p<0.01$). Consequently, non-parametric Kruskal–Wallis H tests were employed, utilising the standard formula adjusted for tied ranks computed via IBM SPSS Statistics, to determine statistically significant differences between the groups. This was followed by Dunn’s tests with Bonferroni correction for post hoc pairwise comparisons to control for Type I errors across multiple testing [54].

The results show that all four sensory dimensions show highly significant differences across cultural backgrounds (p < 0.001). The tactile (touch) dimension demonstrates the largest cultural variation (η² = 0.167), followed by olfactory (η² = 0.149), both representing large effects. These findings confirm that integrating multiple sensory elements enhances visitor engagement and that cultural background significantly shapes how visitors perceive and value these experiences [40]. Tactile perception shows the greatest cultural variation, suggesting that museums designing interactive exhibits should carefully consider cultural backgrounds when developing hands-on experiences [48,55].

A Kruskal-Wallis H test was conducted to examine differences in tactile experience ratings across six cultural backgrounds (Table 6). The results revealed statistically significant differences among the groups, H(5) = 57.70, p < 0.001, η² = 0.17, indicating a large effect size. Dunn’s post hoc tests with Bonferroni correction demonstrated that Urdu-speaking visitors (M = 4.40, SD = 0.53) rated tactile experiences significantly higher than all other cultural groups (all p < 0.05). Additionally, Swahili-speaking visitors (M = 3.99, SD = 0.35) rated tactile experiences significantly higher than Indonesian/Malay (p = 0.004), Persian (p = 0.001), and Turkish (p = 0.004) visitors. No significant differences were found among Hausa, Indonesian/Malay, Persian, and Turkish visitors (all p > 0.05).

As detailed in Table 7, Urdu speakers demonstrated consistently elevated multisensory engagement, scoring highest across the visual, touch, and smell dimensions (M=4.61, M = 4.40, and M = 4.32, respectively). Indonesian/Malay visitors exhibited distinct auditory preferences (M = 4.31), rating sound significantly higher than most other cultural groups; this aligns with existing research indicating that auditory elements enrich cultural heritage atmospheres. Turkish-speaking respondents uniquely prioritised olfactory experiences (M = 4.23) while providing the lowest tactile ratings, revealing a distinctive sensory profile that reflects culturally specific environmental preferences. Furthermore, visitors reporting Swahili or Hausa as their spoken language showed strong tactile engagement (M = 3.99 and M = 3.55, respectively) with notably consistent responses (SD = 0.35 and SD = 0.91), suggesting uniform cultural expectations for touch-based museum interactions. Conversely, Hausa-speaking visitors reported the lowest olfactory ratings (M = 2.86), significantly below all other cultural groups, indicating potential cultural differences in smell perception or atmospheric expectations. These findings support the growing consensus that multisensory museum design must account for cultural diversity to maximise visitor engagement and learning outcomes across diverse populations [40,56]. Digital spaces that offer multisensory experiences shape spatial perception on individual, cultural, and sensory levels, effectively transforming visitors from passive spectators into active participants [40].

4.2. Qualitative Results

Multisensory design implementation presents several substantive challenges. Drawing on a thematic analysis of the visitor feedback data (Table 7), six major themes were organised around positive experiences and negative experiences. A positive aspect experienced by visitors to one of the Islamic museums using multisensory design was creating deep emotional connections and lasting memories. This theme captures how tactile, olfactory, and auditory elements create deep emotional connections and lasting memories. The second positive aspect reported by visitors was dwelling time and attention. The final positive aspect of using multisensory design is related to educational enhancement through interactive technology. Visitors valued technology when it supported learning and historical understanding without overwhelming the artefacts. The negative aspects of using multisensory design mentioned by visitors related to sensory overload and museum fatigue. The second negative aspect of using multisensory design related to technology usability barriers: visitors reported frustration and confusion when interacting with digital elements. The third issue reported was cultural and personal sensitivity; this concern captures discomfort arising from cultural or religious considerations and individual preferences for visiting.

5. Discussion

This study provides empirical evidence that the implementation of multisensory elements functions as a non-linguistic aid in Islamic museums, significantly enhancing comprehension, engagement, and inclusion for linguistically diverse visitors. The data establishes a distinct hierarchy of sensory efficacy: while tactile and auditory inputs significantly predict visitor loyalty and repeat visitation, olfactory stimuli function primarily as atmospheric primers rather than direct drivers of these long-term behavioural intentions.

5.1. Embodied Piety and the Tactile Imperative

The pronounced effectiveness of tactile design aligns with Islamic epistemological traditions emphasising embodied knowledge and ritual practice. Within Islamic tradition, touch frequently constitutes an act of reverence and worship, exemplified by the desire to physically connect with the Kaaba, Hajar al-Aswad (Black Stone), or Maqam Ibrahim. Consequently, the strong inclination toward tactile interaction in museum settings extends beyond mere pedagogical preference; it represents a transference of ritual behaviour into the heritage space.

The research findings suggest an interpretive framework grounded in the concept of “Embodied Piety”, the idea that within Islamic traditions, spiritual engagement and learning are inherently physical, cultivated through bodily practices and sensory rituals rather than sight alone. Positioning this concept as a theoretical lens offers a culturally resonant approach for Islamic museums, distinct from predominantly Western, ocular-centric museological models. This hypothesis is further supported by demographic correlations within the data: older visitors demonstrated significantly stronger preferences for haptic interaction. Tactile interaction, therefore, appears to democratise access to heritage, helping to bypass both linguistic and ageing barriers. Older visitors may have grown up with more hands-on learning approaches or place greater value on physical authenticity when engaging with exhibits. Research on cultural heritage tourism confirms that tactile experiences with materials and artefacts provide authenticity and strengthen visitors’ emotional connection with local history [57,58]. The age-related pattern observed here suggests that museums designing interactive tactile exhibits should consider how different age demographics engage with hands-on elements. While integrating multiple sensory elements can enhance visitor engagement across all age groups, the importance placed on tactile dimensions appears to increase substantially with visitor age [59,60,61].

5.2. Cultural Calibration of Sensory Engagement

The findings suggest that the main spoken language and cultural backgrounds can shape how visitors perceive and value multisensory experiences. The tactile dimension demonstrated the largest cultural variation. Cultures maintain vastly different norms regarding physical contact with objects and public environments. For example, Urdu speakers demonstrated consistently elevated multisensory engagement across all dimensions, scoring particularly high in tactile interaction. In contrast, Turkish visitors exhibited the lowest tactile ratings while uniquely prioritising olfactory experiences, reflecting culturally specific environmental and atmospheric preferences.

Similarly, visitors who speak Indonesian or Malay exhibited distinct auditory preferences, rating sound significantly higher than most other cultural groups. For African-spoken languages, including Swahili and Hausa, visitors showed strong and remarkably consistent tactile engagement, suggesting uniform cultural expectations for touch-based interactions. These variances highlight a critical curatorial imperative: interactive spatial design must be culturally calibrated. A monolithic approach to sensory curation, such as relying exclusively on shared, high-touch interactive screens, risks alienating specific demographics based on ingrained cultural scripts regarding physical contact, modesty, or public hygiene. Culturally calibrated spatial design, however, provides multimodal alternatives. For example, a museum might offer motion-activated auditory narratives or ambient olfactory diffusers in the same gallery space as haptic replicas, ensuring that visitors who culturally eschew public touch can still experience robust, non-ocular engagement [62].

5.3. Balancing the Implementation of Multisensory Elements

While the thematic analysis of open-ended responses highlighted the profound benefits of sensory design, specifically the creation of deep emotional connections, prolonged dwelling times, and enhanced educational facilitation, it also revealed critical vulnerabilities. The most prominent negative outcome reported by visitors was sensory overload and resulting museum fatigue. Visitors frequently cited auditory overlap (competing soundscapes) and overpowering olfactory elements (such as intense incense) as factors that disrupted attention and cognitive processing. This concern is a well-documented phenomenon. Museum fatigue refers to the physical and psychological fatigue that visitors experience when visiting exhibitions due to information overload, dense displays, or monotonous space design [63,64]. Furthermore, museums need to acknowledge open challenges due to the complexity of sensory experiences, the demands for specialised knowledge in sensory-related fields and emerging technologies, and the risks from new types of museum fatigue caused by sensory overload and digital burnout [39,47,51]. Furthermore, technology usability barriers posed a significant challenge. Visitors reported frustration when digital interactive tools overshadowed the artefacts themselves, leading to a sense of digital burnout. This reflects broader concerns in museum studies. Evidence highlights persistent tensions, including sensory overload risks, uneven accessibility outcomes, ethical concerns around sensory data use, and infrastructural and budgetary constraints [65,66]. Finally, cultural and personal sensitivities emerged regarding the spatial layout of interactive technologies. Some visitors expressed discomfort interacting with digital Quranic texts in busy, shared spaces, indicating a need for spatial privacy. Successful inclusive museology, therefore, depends not merely on the integration of sensory technology, but on providing visitors with spatial autonomy, the ability to modulate their sensory intake, retreat to quiet spaces, and engage with sacred materials at their own pace. Previous research emphasises that successful inclusive museology depends not only on technological integration but also on co-creation with stakeholders, iterative design processes, and sensitivity to cultural and embodied differences in perception [67,68].

5.4. Recommendations for Islamic Museum Practice

The findings of this study point to several practice-oriented recommendations for Islamic museum curators and designers. First, high-fidelity tactile replicas and structured hands-on encounters should be foregrounded, given that tactile engagement consistently emerges as the strongest predictor of repeat visitation and aligns with Islamic traditions of embodied knowledge and ritual practice. Second, museums should invest in culturally responsive auditory design, incorporating period-appropriate soundscapes, ambient cues, and multilingual audio guides that reflect the linguistic and cultural diversity of Muslim visitor populations. Third, olfactory elements, such as oud, rose, or incense, should be integrated with care, functioning as subtle atmospheric enhancers that deepen emotional resonance without overwhelming sensory thresholds. Fourth, multisensory interpretation should be co-created with specific community stakeholders, such as cultural scholars, religious scholars, and representatives from the primary languages, including Urdu, Malay, or Turkish speakers, to ensure cultural authenticity and to avoid appropriative or insensitive uses of sacred elements. Finally, museums should provide visitors with agency over their sensory experience through adjustable sound levels, opt-in or opt-out mechanisms for specific sensory components, and the availability of quiet contemplative spaces, thereby accommodating individual preferences and preventing sensory overload.

Heritage policy frameworks, spanning from international organisations like ICOM to national entities such as the Saudi Ministry of Culture and the Saudi Ministry of Tourism, should formally recognise multisensory design as a core accessibility accommodation, positioning it alongside established tools such as audio guides and visual interpretive materials. Strengthening this policy direction requires investment in professional development, including training programmes that equip museum staff with competencies in multisensory design, cultural responsiveness, and inclusive practice. In parallel, heritage authorities should allocate funding to expand research on multisensory approaches in understudied contexts, particularly non-Western museums, religious heritage sites, and community-based institutions, to build a more globally representative evidence base that can inform future policy and practice.

6. Conclusions

The increasing linguistic diversity of visitors to Islamic heritage sites necessitates a departure from traditional, text-heavy interpretive models. This study demonstrates that strategically integrated multisensory design functions as a vital, non-linguistic interpretive pathway, significantly mitigating informational deficits caused by language barriers. The empirical findings validate that tactile and auditory elements are the most potent drivers of visitor engagement, cultural comprehension, and repeat visitation among linguistically diverse demographics.

Crucially, the success of these sensory interventions is inextricably linked to spatial architecture and cultural resonance. The pronounced preference for tactile interaction underscores the relevance of Embodied Piety, an epistemological framework where physical engagement and spatial immersion mirror established ritual behaviours. Consequently, curators and spatial planners must view museum layouts not merely as repositories for artefacts, but as interactive, culturally calibrated environments. The observed disparities in sensory preferences across different cultural groups highlight the danger of a monolithic approach to exhibition design. Furthermore, the dual challenge of museum fatigue and technology usability barriers dictates that sensory additions must be balanced with spatial autonomy, offering visitors dedicated zones for quiet contemplation and cognitive processing.

While this study offers robust insights, it is subject to several methodological and contextual limitations. First, the scope was geographically confined to four specific Islamic museums within Makkah, meaning the findings may be heavily influenced by the pronounced seasonality of religious visitation; visitor demographics, psychological states, and museum crowding fluctuate significantly between peak pilgrimage seasons (Hajj and Umrah) and off-peak periods. Second, while the study focused on six linguistic groups, using spoken language as a proxy for culture inherently oversimplifies multifaceted cultural and national identities. Third, the study’s design lacked a formal control group, such as a cohort experiencing a strictly traditional, ocular-centric exhibit, which limits the ability to draw definitive causal conclusions. Additionally, the sampling strategy may have resulted in uneven demographic representation and varying sample sizes across the four museum sites.

To address these constraints, future research should expand the geographical and linguistic scope, employ controlled experimental designs, and investigate how multisensory design influences long-term knowledge retention. Furthermore, future studies should examine the potential of integrating these frameworks into broader urban heritage planning and architectural restoration guidelines. Ultimately, prioritising culturally sensitive, high-fidelity sensory environments will ensure that Islamic museums remain inclusive, accessible, and spiritually resonant educational spaces for a global audience.