Integrating Environmental Exposures, Epigenetic Programming and Nanotechnology for Chronic Disease Prevention in the One Health Era

1. Introduction

Non-communicable chronic diseases (NCDs) are currently among the leading causes of mortality worldwide, accounting for a significant proportion of global healthcare expenditures and a reduction in the population’s quality of life. NCDs represent a growing public health concern, particularly in developing countries undergoing rapid urbanization and industrialization [1,2].

Traditionally, the etiology of chronic diseases has been associated with genetic predisposition and lifestyle-related factors, such as unhealthy diet, smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, physical inactivity, and stress. However, growing scientific evidence demonstrates that environmental exposures play a central role in the pathogenesis and progression of these diseases. Prolonged exposure to air pollutants, heavy metals, pesticides, microplastics, and endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs) can alter cellular homeostasis and metabolic pathways [3,4,5].

Human exposure to endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs) is closely associated with anthropogenic activities that release chemical contaminants into the environment. Global monitoring studies of methane (CH₄) emissions reveal the spatial distribution of activities such as intensive agriculture, livestock farming, and waste management, which are widely recognized as major sources of environmental impact. Although CH₄ does not act directly as an endocrine disruptor, its emission patterns may help identify regions under intense anthropogenic influence, where multiple environmental contaminants potentially associated with endocrine-disrupting effects may coexist [6,7,8].

Recent studies demonstrate that many of the biological effects resulting from environmental exposures are mediated by epigenetic mechanisms and alterations in endocrine signalling. These modifications may occur during critical periods of development, influencing the biological programming of the organism and increasing susceptibility to chronic diseases throughout life, as proposed by the Developmental Origins of Health and Disease (DoHaD) theory [9,10,11,12]. The increasing complexity of environmental health challenges requires innovative scientific approaches capable of preventing and integrating diagnosis, monitoring, and therapy. In this context, nanotechnology emerges as a transformative field with applications in medicine, toxicology, biotechnology, and environmental sciences. Nanostructured materials exhibit unique physicochemical properties, including high surface area, enhanced reactivity, and tunable biological interactions, thereby enabling the development of advanced therapeutic and diagnostic systems [13,14,15].

Nanotechnology-based strategies include targeted drug delivery systems, nanoencapsulation of bioactive compounds, nanosensors for biomarker detection, and nanomaterials for environmental remediation. These technologies are promising for improving therapeutic efficacy and reducing adverse effects, as well as for enabling early disease detection. Furthermore, they may contribute to the prevention of chronic diseases, as they are potential tools for environmental pollution monitoring [16,17,18].

Green nanotechnology has emerged as an innovative and sustainable approach focused on developing nanomaterials and nanosystems through environmentally safe methods, employing biogenic synthesis with plant extracts, microorganisms, and bee products to produce nanoparticles. Unlike conventional methods, which are often associated with the use of toxic solvents and high energy consumption, green nanotechnology seeks to minimize environmental impacts and promote cleaner and more sustainable processes. In this context, its applications have demonstrated great potential for monitoring and treating chronic diseases, particularly through the development of highly sensitive biosensors, controlled drug delivery systems, and targeted therapies that reduce adverse effects and enhance therapeutic efficacy. Furthermore, green nanomaterials have been employed to remediate environmental pollutants, thereby reducing human exposure to contaminants associated with disease development [23,26,27,28,29,30,31,32].

This perspective is directly aligned with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly those related to Good Health and Well-Being (SDG 3), Clean Water and Sanitation (SDG 6), Responsible Consumption and Production (SDG 12), and Climate Action (SDG 13) [19,20,21,22,23,24]. Furthermore, the integration of green nanotechnology with the One Health concept reinforces the understanding that human health depends on the balance among the environment, animals, and ecosystems. The rising incidence of chronic diseases linked to environmental pollution, climate change, and the degradation of natural resources underscores the need for interdisciplinary strategies that integrate scientific innovation, sustainability, and public health prevention. Thus, green nanotechnology represents an important scientific frontier for developing more ethical, sustainable, and integrated therapeutic and environmental solutions that address contemporary global demands [25,33].

Thus, this review aims to discuss the relationship between environmental exposures and chronic diseases, emphasizing the mechanisms of endocrine disruption, epigenetic alterations, and developmental programming, and argues that these processes play a significant role in the origin of chronic diseases, highlighting nanotechnology as a promising tool for diagnosis, therapeutic intervention, and environmental remediation within a One Health perspective.

2. Environmental Exposures and the Development of Non-Communicable Chronic Diseases (NCDs)

Environmental contaminants have increasingly been associated with the onset and progression of chronic diseases. Rapid industrial expansion, urbanization, intensive agriculture, and inadequate waste management have intensified human exposure to toxic compounds capable of affecting biological systems over prolonged periods. Among the major environmental pollutants, atmospheric particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10) is strongly associated with respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. These particles can penetrate deeply into pulmonary tissues and reach the systemic circulation, inducing oxidative stress, endothelial dysfunction, and inflammatory responses. Prolonged exposure has been associated with hypertension, atherosclerosis, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and an increased risk of stroke [3,34,35].

Heavy metals such as lead, cadmium, mercury, and arsenic also represent major toxicological concerns. These substances accumulate in tissues and organs, interfering with enzymatic activity, mitochondrial function, and DNA repair mechanisms [36,37]. Exposure to these metals may contribute to neurological disorders, renal dysfunction, endocrine imbalance, and carcinogenesis. Studies on contamination by these metals demonstrate direct links to the development of chronic diseases [38].

Pesticides and endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs), including bisphenol A (BPA), phthalates, and dioxins, have received considerable attention due to their ability to interfere with hormonal signalling pathways. These compounds are associated with reproductive disorders, obesity, diabetes mellitus, thyroid dysfunction, and developmental abnormalities. Furthermore, many environmental contaminants exhibit bioaccumulative and persistent characteristics, thereby amplifying their long-term ecological and health impacts [39,40,41].

Another emerging concern involves microplastics and nanoplastics, which have been detected in water, food, air, and even human tissues. Their small size facilitates cellular uptake and interaction with biological membranes, potentially triggering inflammatory processes, oxidative damage, and immunological alterations [5,42].

In addition to direct cellular damage, various environmental contaminants can interfere with regulatory mechanisms that modify gene expression and metabolic homeostasis. Among these mechanisms, endocrine and epigenetic alterations have received increasing attention due to their involvement in the development of chronic diseases [43,44,45].

3. Endocrine-Disrupting Compounds (EDCs): Environmental Exposures Associated with Epigenetic Reprogramming and Non-Communicable Chronic Diseases (NCDs)

Potentially harmful chemical substances present in environmental pollutants, pesticides, everyday consumer products, and food can directly influence human metabolism. Endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs) are substances that interfere with the normal function of the endocrine system by altering hormone synthesis, secretion, transport, and metabolism [11,46]. These harmful compounds may act by mimicking, blocking, or modifying hormonal signals, triggering alterations in cellular signalling pathways and gene expression, thereby compromising the metabolic and physiological homeostasis of the organism [47].

EDCs have been associated with an increased risk of several non-communicable chronic diseases, including obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, thyroid disorders, cardiovascular diseases, reproductive health disorders, various types of cancer [48], as well as neurodevelopmental disorders [49]. Human exposure to these compounds occurs primarily through dietary intake, dermal contact, and inhalation, making them a growing concern for global public health [48].

Exposure to EDCs during pregnancy deserves special attention, as this period represents a window of heightened biological sensitivity for fetal development. Many EDCs can induce epigenetic alterations, including changes in DNA methylation patterns, histone modifications, and the expression of non-coding RNAs [50].

Epigenetic alterations have been associated with the development of various diseases, including neurodegenerative diseases, cancers, metabolic diseases, and neurodevelopmental disorders [51]. Furthermore, evidence suggests that certain epigenetic modifications may be transmitted to subsequent generations, characterizing phenomena of transgenerational epigenetic inheritance [52,53].

The ability of EDCs to modify epigenetic patterns has been considered one of the main biological mechanisms linking environmental exposures to the development of non-communicable chronic diseases. These alterations may persist even after exposure ends, influencing metabolic, inflammatory, endocrine, and neurobiological processes associated with the pathophysiology of various diseases [54].

Omics sciences enable the integrated analysis of genes, proteins, metabolites, and epigenetic modifications, providing a comprehensive view of the biological mechanisms that regulate cellular function. In this context, high-throughput approaches, such as transcriptomics, epigenomics, proteomics, and metabolomics, have significantly expanded the understanding of the effects of toxic agents on biological systems, enabling the identification of molecular alterations that disrupt cellular pathways, compromise tissue homeostasis, and contribute to the development and progression of diseases [55].

The convergence of omics sciences and nanotechnology has driven the development of nanostructured platforms with theranostic potential, capable of integrating biomarker identification, monitoring molecular alterations, and targeted therapeutic intervention in biological pathways associated with environmental exposures and non-communicable chronic diseases [56].

4. Developmental Origins of Health and Disease (DoHaD)

Pregnancy is a period of intense metabolic demand, during which an adequate nutrient supply is essential for fetal development and maternal health. In this context, the mother’s nutritional status and dietary habits play a determining role in the developmental programming of the offspring, influencing their health through metabolic and epigenetic mechanisms [57]. Pregnant women subjected to malnutrition, compounded by exposure to environmental contaminants, are more likely to have offspring whose cellular programming is directed toward the development of diseases [58].

During these critical developmental windows, the coordinated regulation of gene expression that drives the formation and maturation of tissues and organs occurs. The Developmental Origins of Health and Disease (DoHaD) theory proposes that environmental exposures during critical periods of development, such as pregnancy and early childhood, can influence health throughout life [59]. This process is largely mediated by epigenetic mechanisms that modulate gene expression in response to factors such as nutrition, environmental pollutants, pesticides, heavy metals, and physiological stress [12]. Consequently, persistent alterations in the structure and function of organs and systems may increase susceptibility to non-communicable chronic diseases, including metabolic, cardiovascular, inflammatory, and neurodegenerative disorders [60].

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are a class of environmental contaminants that persist for long periods in ecosystems and biological tissues. Exposure may occur as early as the preconception period, affecting gametes, and continue during intrauterine life through the maternal–fetal transfer of compounds accumulated in the body. During pregnancy, the mobilization of maternal lipid stores facilitates the placental transfer of these contaminants, potentially altering endocrine signalling and epigenetic mechanisms involved in fetal programming, with potential repercussions for the development and health of the offspring throughout life [61].

Various environmental contaminants have been associated with molecular alterations that can interfere with developmental programming. Among them, exposure to PM2.5 promotes activation of pathways related to amino acid transport, cellular respiration, and cell adhesion, while reducing the activity of genes involved in vascular development and organogenesis [62]. Similarly, residues of pesticides, chemical fertilizers, and heavy metals accumulated in foods of animal origin represent important routes of human exposure to environmental contaminants. These contaminants can bioaccumulate throughout the food chain and reach the human body through the consumption of contaminated foods. Evidence indicates that chronic exposure to these compounds is associated with metabolic, inflammatory, and epigenetic alterations that can impair normal physiological development and increase the risk of chronic diseases throughout life, with potential transgenerational effects when germ cells are affected [63].

The Mediterranean diet has been considered a promising nutritional strategy within the context of DoHaD, as it promotes the consumption of foods rich in dietary fiber, bioactive compounds, and unsaturated fats. This dietary pattern modulates the gut microbiota by stimulating microorganisms that produce short-chain fatty acids, metabolites associated with maintaining metabolic and immune homeostasis. During pregnancy, maternal diet may influence the composition of the offspring’s microbiome and affect the intrauterine environment. Evidence suggests that these effects are mediated, in part, by epigenetic mechanisms, particularly alterations in fetal DNA methylation, which can modify gene regulation and influence susceptibility to disease throughout life [64].

These biological alterations may persist for long periods before the clinical manifestation of disease, making their early identification more difficult and limiting opportunities for preventive intervention. Furthermore, many biomarkers associated with environmental exposures and epigenetic programming exhibit high molecular complexity and interindividual variability, posing challenges for conventional diagnostic methods. In this context, there is a need for technologies capable of detecting these alterations with greater sensitivity and specificity.

5. Nanotechnology in Diagnosis and Monitoring

In light of these challenges, nanotechnology has emerged as a promising platform for developing diagnostic systems capable of detecting molecular biomarkers at extremely low concentrations. The physicochemical properties of nanomaterials enhance analytical sensitivity and facilitate the early monitoring of alterations associated with environmental exposures and chronic diseases. Nanomaterials such as inorganic nanoparticles, quantum dots, graphene, magnetic nanoparticles, and carbon nanotubes exhibit unique optical, electrical, and magnetic properties that enhance the performance of nanosensors [65,66,67].

Nanobiosensors can detect biomarkers at extremely low concentrations, enabling early diagnosis of chronic diseases before the onset of severe clinical symptoms. In oncology, nanosensors can identify tumor biomarkers, circulating tumor cells, and genetic mutations with greater sensitivity than conventional methods [66,68,69]. Similarly, in cardiovascular diseases, nanotechnology-based platforms enable detection of inflammatory mediators, cardiac enzymes, and oxidative stress biomarkers [67,70,71,72,73].

Wearable nanosensors also represent a growing field in personalized medicine. These devices can continuously monitor physiological parameters such as glucose levels, blood pressure, sweat composition, and inflammatory biomarkers in real time, contributing to preventive strategies and individualized therapeutic monitoring [70,74,75].

In environmental health, nanotechnology supports the development of portable systems for detecting pollutants and toxic compounds. Nanosensors capable of detecting heavy metals, pesticides, pathogenic microorganisms, and volatile organic compounds provide important tools for environmental surveillance and risk assessment [76,77,78,79,80].

The synergistic integration of nanotechnology with artificial intelligence and digital health platforms represents a major advancement in biomedical sciences, enabling innovative strategies for predictive diagnostics, epidemiological surveillance, and precision medicine. This multidisciplinary approach enables the integrated analysis of complex data, contributing to more accurate, individualized, and efficient clinical decision-making [20,78,81,82].

6. Nanotechnologies Applied to Non-Communicable Chronic Diseases (NCDs)

In addition to enabling the early detection of biomarkers associated with environmental exposures and epigenetic alterations, nanotechnology has expanded the therapeutic possibilities for chronic diseases. Given that processes such as persistent inflammation, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and epigenetic dysregulation play central roles in the pathophysiology of these diseases, nanostructured systems have been developed to deliver therapeutic compounds to specific targets, thereby enhancing treatment efficacy and reducing adverse effects. One of the most promising applications of nanotechnology lies in targeted drug delivery systems. Conventional drugs often exhibit low bioavailability, rapid degradation, dose-dependent systemic toxicity or require prolonged administration and nonspecific distribution. Nanocarriers overcome many of these limitations by enabling the controlled and localized release of therapeutic agents [83,84,85].

Liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, dendrimers, nanocapsules, and metallic nanoparticles are among the nanosystems most extensively investigated for biomedical applications. The development and functionalization of these systems are strongly based on the principles of supramolecular chemistry, particularly non-covalent interactions such as hydrogen bonding, electrostatic interactions, van der Waals forces, and hydrophobic interactions, which govern self-assembly and molecular recognition. These characteristics enable the encapsulation and controlled release of therapeutic agents, protecting them from chemical and enzymatic degradation while improving their pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profiles, thereby enhancing therapeutic efficacy and reducing adverse effects [86,87,88].

In cancer therapy, various nanoparticulate systems, including PEGylated liposomes, PLGA polymeric nanoparticles, dendrimers, gold nanoparticles, and mesoporous silica nanoparticles, enable the selective accumulation of therapeutic agents in tumor tissues through passive and active targeting mechanisms, thereby reducing adverse effects on healthy cells. The surface functionalization of these nanoparticles with specific ligands, such as antibodies, peptides, and aptamers, enables recognition of receptors overexpressed in cancer cells, thereby increasing therapeutic precision and improving the efficacy of antineoplastic treatment [89,90,91,92,93].

Nanotechnology has also emerged as a promising strategy for the controlled delivery of antioxidants, anti-inflammatory compounds, nucleic acids, and various naturally derived bioactive substances. The incorporation of these compounds into nanostructured systems, such as liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, nanoemulsions, and lipid nanoparticles, protects them from chemical and enzymatic degradation, enhances their solubility, prolongs their circulation time, and optimizes their bioavailability and tissue distribution. In this context, the nanoencapsulation of phytochemicals, such as curcumin, resveratrol, quercetin, and phenolic compounds derived from propolis, has shown promising results by enhancing their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and cytoprotective properties [94,95,96,97].

Furthermore, the functionalization of nanocarriers can promote targeted delivery to specific tissues or target cells, thereby enhancing therapeutic efficacy and reducing adverse effects. Thus, the application of nanotechnology-based systems significantly expands the clinical potential of these bioactive compounds, offering an innovative approach to the prevention and treatment of diseases associated with oxidative stress and chronic inflammation, including cancer, cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative diseases, and metabolic disorders. Nanotechnology has also emerged as a promising strategy for the controlled delivery of antioxidants, anti-inflammatory compounds, nucleic acids, and various naturally derived bioactive substances. The incorporation of these compounds into nanostructured systems, such as liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, nanoemulsions, and lipid nanoparticles, protects them from chemical and enzymatic degradation, enhances their solubility, prolongs their circulation time, and optimizes their bioavailability and tissue distribution [98,99].

In this context, the nanoencapsulation of phytochemicals, such as curcumin, resveratrol, quercetin, and phenolic compounds derived from propolis, has demonstrated promising results by enhancing their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and cytoprotective properties. Furthermore, the functionalization of nanocarriers can promote targeted delivery to specific tissues or target cells, thereby enhancing therapeutic efficacy and reducing adverse effects. Thus, the application of nanotechnological systems significantly expands the clinical potential of these bioactive compounds, representing an innovative approach for the prevention and treatment of diseases associated with oxidative stress and chronic inflammation, including cancer, cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative diseases, and metabolic disorders [83,89,94].

Additionally, many of these nanostructured systems are based on the principles of supramolecular chemistry, in which non-covalent interactions, such as hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic interactions, and electrostatic forces, play a fundamental role in the encapsulation, stabilization, and controlled release of bioactive compounds. Furthermore, nanomedicine plays an important role in regenerative medicine and tissue engineering. Nanostructured scaffolds mimic the architecture of the extracellular matrix, promoting cell adhesion, proliferation, and tissue regeneration [100,101].

**Table 1** provides an overview of the main nanotechnologies employed in the diagnosis and treatment of chronic diseases, highlighting the diversity of nanomaterials and their multiple biomedical applications. Different nanostructured systems, including liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, metallic nanoparticles, nanogels, and nanoemulsions, have been developed to overcome limitations associated with conventional therapies, such as low bioavailability, nonspecific distribution, and a high incidence of adverse effects [102,103]. In addition to enabling the controlled and targeted delivery of therapeutic agents, these platforms can be used for early biomarker detection, bioimaging, and monitoring disease progression. The versatility of these systems allows their application in various chronic diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative diseases, diabetes mellitus, and inflammatory diseases, contributing to the development of more effective, safer, and personalized therapeutic strategies. Thus, nanotechnology emerges as a fundamental tool for advancing precision medicine, expanding the prospects for diagnosing, preventing, and treating chronic diseases of major clinical and socioeconomic relevance [104].

Despite these advances, concerns related to nanotoxicology remain essential. The interaction between nanoparticles and biological systems depends on factors such as size, morphology, surface charge, concentration, and duration of exposure. Therefore, rigorous safety assessments and regulatory frameworks are necessary to ensure the responsible and sustainable application of nanotechnology [105].

7. Nanotechnologies Applied to Environmental Remediation

Beyond biomedical applications, nanotechnology has emerged as a strategic tool for environmental remediation, offering innovative solutions to reduce exposure to pollutants and mitigate contamination impacts in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Owing to their unique physicochemical properties, such as high surface area, high reactivity, functionalization capability, and distinctive catalytic properties, nanomaterials exhibit great potential to adsorb, degrade, transform, or neutralize a wide range of contaminants present in water, soil, and air [13,26,27,136].

Various nanostructured systems have been developed for environmental applications, including nanostructured adsorbents, photocatalytic nanoparticles, magnetic nanocomposites, nanofunctionalized membranes, and hybrid nanomaterials. These systems have demonstrated high efficiency in the removal of heavy metals, such as lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), and arsenic (As), as well as synthetic dyes, pharmaceutical residues, pesticides, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and pathogenic microorganisms present in contaminated environments [137,138,139,140].

Among the most extensively investigated nanomaterials are titanium dioxide (TiO₂) nanoparticles, which are widely employed in heterogeneous photocatalytic processes. Under ultraviolet or visible radiation, these materials are capable of generating reactive oxygen species, such as hydroxyl radicals (•OH) and superoxide anions (O₂•−), thereby promoting the degradation of persistent organic compounds and the mineralization of various pollutants. Similarly, zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles and TiO₂-based nanocomposites have been developed to enhance photocatalytic efficiency and improve the stability of decontamination processes [141,142,143].

Graphene-based materials, including graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene oxide (rGO), have also attracted considerable attention owing to their high specific surface area, abundance of functional groups, and remarkable adsorption capacity. These materials exhibit high affinity for metal ions, pesticides, dyes, and emerging contaminants, making them promising candidates for water purification systems and industrial wastewater treatment [27,144].

Iron oxide (Fe₃O₄) magnetic nanoparticles constitute another class of materials of great environmental interest. In addition to exhibiting a high capacity for contaminant adsorption, these nanomaterials can be readily recovered from the environment using external magnetic fields, enabling the reuse of adsorbents and reducing the operational costs of remediation processes. This characteristic makes magnetic nanocomposites particularly attractive for large-scale applications [145,146].

In recent years, particular attention has been directed toward the removal of emerging contaminants, including residues of antibiotics, hormones, pharmaceuticals, microplastics, and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), commonly referred to as “forever chemicals.” The high environmental persistence of these compounds and their potential ecotoxicological and human health effects have driven the development of multifunctional nanomaterials capable of simultaneously promoting adsorption, catalytic degradation, and environmental monitoring [147,148].

Concurrently, nanotechnology has contributed to the development of highly sensitive and selective environmental nanosensors capable of detecting contaminants at extremely low concentrations. Biosensors based on metallic nanoparticles, quantum dots, and carbon-based materials enable real-time monitoring of water, soil, and air quality, facilitating the detection of contaminants even before an environmental disaster occurs [77].

The integration of nanotechnology, sustainability, and environmental remediation is directly aligned with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 3 (Good Health and Well-Being), SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation), SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities), SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production), SDG 13 (Climate Action), SDG 14 (Life Below Water), and SDG 15 (Life on Land). Thus, nanotechnologies for environmental applications constitute an important tool for addressing global challenges related to pollution, water scarcity, and ecosystem preservation, contributing to the development of more sustainable and resilient models of development [19,22].

Table 2. Major applications of nanotechnology in environmental remediation and their relationship with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

Nanomaterial/Nanotechnology	Mechanism of Action	Major Contaminants Removed	Environmental Applications	Related SDGs
Titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO₂)	Photocatalysis and oxidative degradation	Dyes, pesticides, pharmaceuticals, and persistent organic pollutants	Wastewater treatment and industrial effluent decontamination [149]	SDG 6, SDG 12, SDG 13
Graphene-based materials (graphene oxide and reduced graphene oxide)	Adsorption due to high surface area and π-π interactions	Heavy metals, dyes, pesticides, and pharmaceuticals	Water purification and removal of emerging contaminants [150]	SDG 6, SDG 11, SDG 12
Magnetic nanoparticles (Fe₃O₄)	Adsorption and magnetic separation	Arsenic, lead, cadmium, chromium, and organic compounds	Water treatment and contaminant recovery [151]	SDG 6, SDG 12
Carbon nanotubes	Adsorption and filtration	Organic compounds, heavy metals, and hydrocarbons	Water purification and contaminated soil remediation [152]	SDG 6, SDG 11
Magnetic nanocomposites	Adsorption, catalytic degradation, and magnetic separation	Pesticides, dyes, and pharmaceutical residues	Industrial wastewater treatment [153]	SDG 6, SDG 12
Nanozeolites	Ion exchange and adsorption	Metal ions, ammonia, and nitrogen-containing compounds	Wastewater treatment and soil remediation [154]	SDG 6, SDG 15
Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs)	Antimicrobial activity	Bacteria, fungi, viruses, and other pathogens	Water disinfection and decontamination of polluted surfaces [155]	SDG 3, SDG 6
Zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO)	Photocatalysis and antimicrobial activity	Dyes, pesticides, and microorganisms	Effluent treatment and environmental disinfection [156]	SDG 3, SDG 6, SDG 12
Cerium oxide nanoparticles (CeO₂)	Catalytic activity and antioxidant properties	Reactive species and organic contaminants	Environmental decontamination and protection against oxidative stress [157]	SDG 3, SDG 13
Biogenic nanoparticles (green synthesis)	Adsorption, catalysis, and antimicrobial activity	Heavy metals, pesticides, and pathogens	Sustainable environmental remediation and water treatment [158]	SDG 3, SDG 6, SDG 12, SDG 13

Abbreviations: SDG 3, Good Health and Well-Being; SDG 6, Clean Water and Sanitation; SDG 11, Sustainable Cities and Communities; SDG 12, Responsible Consumption and Production; SDG 13, Climate Action; SDG 15, Life on Land.

Table 2. Major applications of nanotechnology in environmental remediation and their relationship with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

Nanomaterial/Nanotechnology	Mechanism of Action	Major Contaminants Removed	Environmental Applications	Related SDGs
Titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO₂)	Photocatalysis and oxidative degradation	Dyes, pesticides, pharmaceuticals, and persistent organic pollutants	Wastewater treatment and industrial effluent decontamination [149]	SDG 6, SDG 12, SDG 13
Graphene-based materials (graphene oxide and reduced graphene oxide)	Adsorption due to high surface area and π-π interactions	Heavy metals, dyes, pesticides, and pharmaceuticals	Water purification and removal of emerging contaminants [150]	SDG 6, SDG 11, SDG 12
Magnetic nanoparticles (Fe₃O₄)	Adsorption and magnetic separation	Arsenic, lead, cadmium, chromium, and organic compounds	Water treatment and contaminant recovery [151]	SDG 6, SDG 12
Carbon nanotubes	Adsorption and filtration	Organic compounds, heavy metals, and hydrocarbons	Water purification and contaminated soil remediation [152]	SDG 6, SDG 11
Magnetic nanocomposites	Adsorption, catalytic degradation, and magnetic separation	Pesticides, dyes, and pharmaceutical residues	Industrial wastewater treatment [153]	SDG 6, SDG 12
Nanozeolites	Ion exchange and adsorption	Metal ions, ammonia, and nitrogen-containing compounds	Wastewater treatment and soil remediation [154]	SDG 6, SDG 15
Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs)	Antimicrobial activity	Bacteria, fungi, viruses, and other pathogens	Water disinfection and decontamination of polluted surfaces [155]	SDG 3, SDG 6
Zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO)	Photocatalysis and antimicrobial activity	Dyes, pesticides, and microorganisms	Effluent treatment and environmental disinfection [156]	SDG 3, SDG 6, SDG 12
Cerium oxide nanoparticles (CeO₂)	Catalytic activity and antioxidant properties	Reactive species and organic contaminants	Environmental decontamination and protection against oxidative stress [157]	SDG 3, SDG 13
Biogenic nanoparticles (green synthesis)	Adsorption, catalysis, and antimicrobial activity	Heavy metals, pesticides, and pathogens	Sustainable environmental remediation and water treatment [158]	SDG 3, SDG 6, SDG 12, SDG 13

Abbreviations: SDG 3, Good Health and Well-Being; SDG 6, Clean Water and Sanitation; SDG 11, Sustainable Cities and Communities; SDG 12, Responsible Consumption and Production; SDG 13, Climate Action; SDG 15, Life on Land.

In this context, green nanotechnology has emerged as an innovative and sustainable approach based on environmentally friendly synthesis methods that employ biological systems, such as plants, fungi, algae, yeasts, and bacteria, as reducing and stabilizing agents. The biogenic synthesis of nanoparticles significantly reduces the use of toxic solvents, hazardous reagents, and high energy demands, thereby promoting safer, more economically viable processes aligned with the principles of Green Chemistry and the Circular Economy [26,31].

In addition to minimizing the environmental impacts associated with the production of nanomaterials, biogenic nanoparticles often exhibit greater biocompatibility, lower toxicity, and additional functional properties, expanding their potential applications in environmental decontamination and remediation processes.

8. Nanotechnology, Environmental Health, and the One Health Concept: Toward an Integrated Paradigm of Health and Sustainability

The increasing incidence of non-communicable chronic diseases has been increasingly associated with environmental degradation and prolonged exposure to risk factors arising from anthropogenic activities. Environmental exposures associated with chronic diseases represent a challenge that transcends the boundaries of traditional medicine, simultaneously encompassing issues related to environmental quality, food production, biodiversity conservation, animal health, and sustainable development [38,45].

In this context, the One Health concept emerges as an integrative scientific paradigm, recognizing that human health is inseparable from animal health and the integrity of ecosystems. This approach proposes that contemporary health challenges should be addressed through interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary collaboration among the biomedical, environmental, veterinary, biotechnological, and social sciences, as well as public policy. The increasing frequency of extreme events associated with climate change, the expansion of urban areas, the degradation of natural habitats, and the intensification of natural resource exploitation have significantly altered ecosystem dynamics, contributing not only to the emergence of infectious diseases but also to the exacerbation of environmentally related chronic diseases [24,25,159].

From this perspective, nanotechnology plays a strategic role by providing tools that can simultaneously address different components of the One Health system. In the context of human health, nanostructured systems have enabled advances in early diagnosis, precision medicine, controlled drug delivery, targeted therapies, and the delivery of bioactive compounds with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. At the environmental interface, nanomaterials have been employed in the remediation of water, soil, and air, in the removal of emerging contaminants, and in the development of nanosensors for real-time environmental monitoring. Additionally, green nanotechnology contributes to the development of more sustainable production processes aligned with the principles of Green Chemistry and the Circular Economy.

The convergence of nanotechnology, environmental health, and sustainability enables the development of preventive strategies that reduce environmental risk factors associated with chronic diseases. In this context, prevention is no longer focused exclusively on the individual but also incorporates ecosystem quality, food safety, access to clean water, pollution reduction, and biodiversity conservation as fundamental components in promoting public health.

However, despite the enormous potential of these technologies, their large-scale implementation requires careful evaluation of the potential ecotoxicological impacts and risks associated with chronic exposure to nanomaterials. Issues related to nanotoxicology, bioaccumulation, environmental persistence, and effects on non-target organisms still require further investigation. In addition, ethical, regulatory, and socioeconomic aspects, including equitable access to technological innovations and the fair distribution of their benefits, must be considered to ensure the responsible and sustainable application of nanotechnology [160,161,162].

Thus, the integration of the One Health principles, nanotechnology, and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) represents a new scientific paradigm for the twenty-first century, in which the promotion of human health depends directly on environmental preservation and the development of innovative, safe, and sustainable technologies. This integrated approach transcends the traditional disease-treatment model by proposing a systemic perspective grounded in prevention, the reduction of exposure to risk factors, and the development of more resilient and healthier ecosystems for present and future generations [163].

9. Conclusion

This review article underscores that chronic diseases should be recognized as multifactorial conditions resulting from the complex interplay between genetic susceptibility, environmental exposures, and biological programming throughout the life course. Environmental pollutants, endocrine-disrupting chemicals, and other anthropogenic contaminants contribute to oxidative stress, chronic inflammation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and epigenetic modifications that can alter developmental trajectories and increase the risk of cardiovascular, metabolic, respiratory, neurodegenerative, and neoplastic diseases. These findings reinforce the Developmental Origins of Health and Disease (DoHaD) paradigm, underscoring that exposure to harmful environmental factors during critical developmental windows may have persistent, and even transgenerational, consequences. Therefore, reducing the global burden of chronic diseases requires preventive strategies that extend beyond individual behavioral interventions and incorporate environmental protection, pollution reduction, sustainable public health policies, and integrated risk assessment.

Simultaneously, nanotechnology represents a transformative interdisciplinary platform with the potential to reshape the prevention, diagnosis, monitoring, and treatment of environmentally associated chronic diseases. Nanostructured materials and nanoscale delivery systems offer innovative opportunities for highly sensitive biomarker detection, precision drug delivery, improved therapeutic efficacy, and environmental remediation technologies that reduce human exposure to hazardous contaminants. However, realizing these benefits requires careful evaluation of the long-term safety, biocompatibility, environmental fate, and ethical implications of nanomaterials to ensure their responsible implementation. Future research should prioritize interdisciplinary collaborations that integrate nanomedicine, environmental sciences, toxicology, molecular biology, epidemiology, and public health under the One Health framework. Such an integrated approach will be essential for developing regenerative solutions that simultaneously protect ecosystems, minimize environmental health risks, reduce the global burden of chronic diseases, and promote health equity for current and future generations.