School Bullying, Self-Esteem, and Emotional Intelligence Among Primary Education Students: A Gender-Based Pretest Analysis from a School Nursing Perspective

1. Introduction

School bullying is currently recognized as a major public health and educational concern due to its impact on children’s emotional well-being, psychosocial development, academic performance, and quality of life [1,2]. Bullying has been defined as a form of intentional and repeated aggression occurring within a context of power imbalance between peers, involving behaviours such as physical aggression, verbal abuse, social exclusion, intimidation, and relational violence [1]. During childhood and early adolescence, exposure to bullying situations has been associated with increased levels of anxiety, depressive symptoms, emotional dysregulation, low self-esteem, school maladjustment, and social isolation [2].

Recent international reports from the Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) study and the World Health Organization indicate that peer victimization and bullying behaviours continue to affect a substantial proportion of school-aged children across Europe, with increasing concern regarding emotional and psychosocial consequences during preadolescence [3]. In Spain, increasing numbers of bullying-related incidents and psychosocial difficulties have been reported during the transition from late childhood to early adolescence [4]. Previous studies conducted in Spanish educational settings have highlighted the persistence of peer victimization, social exclusion, and aggressive interpersonal behaviours in Primary Education, reinforcing the importance of early preventive and health-promoting interventions during this developmental stage [5].

In recent years, increasing attention has been paid to the role of emotional and psychosocial factors associated with bullying involvement. Among these, self-esteem and emotional intelligence have emerged as particularly relevant constructs in understanding vulnerability and protective mechanisms related to peer victimization and aggressive behaviours. Previous evidence suggests that children with lower self-esteem may present greater emotional vulnerability, poorer social adjustment, and higher risk of involvement in bullying dynamics, either as victims or aggressors [6]. Likewise, difficulties in emotional regulation and emotional understanding have been associated with maladaptive interpersonal relationships and conflict management problems in school settings [7].

Bullying is currently understood as a multidimensional social phenomenon involving different participant roles, including victims, aggressors, and bystanders, whose interactions contribute to the maintenance or prevention of bullying dynamics within school environments [8]. In this context, validated multidimensional assessment instruments such as the Peer Harassment Questionnaire (PHQ) have demonstrated adequate psychometric properties, including reliability and construct validity, for the assessment of bullying involvement among children and adolescents in Spanish populations [9].

Emotional intelligence, conceptualized as the ability to perceive, understand, and regulate emotions, has been identified as a protective factor for mental health and social adaptation during childhood [10]. Specifically, the dimensions evaluated by the Trait Meta-Mood Scale (TMMS-24)—emotional attention, emotional clarity, and emotional repair—have demonstrated significant associations with psychological well-being, emotional adjustment, resilience, and interpersonal functioning [11]. Previous studies have reported that higher levels of emotional clarity and emotional repair are associated with lower levels of aggressive behaviour and victimization, as well as greater self-esteem and adaptive coping strategies.

Similarly, self-esteem assessment tools specifically adapted for Primary Education populations, such as the Self-Esteem Questionnaire for Primary Education (A-EP), have shown adequate validity and reliability for evaluating children’s self-perception and emotional adjustment within educational settings [12]. Low self-esteem during childhood has been associated with emotional vulnerability, poorer interpersonal functioning, and increased risk of psychosocial maladjustment [6].

In parallel, social and emotional learning interventions implemented in school settings have demonstrated positive effects on emotional adjustment, interpersonal relationships, behavioural regulation, and mental health outcomes among children and adolescents [13]. These findings support the relevance of emotional competencies as key protective factors in bullying prevention frameworks.

Gender differences have also been widely documented in relation to emotional competencies and bullying behaviours. Evidence indicates that girls generally report higher levels of emotional awareness, emotional understanding, and emotional regulation, whereas boys tend to show higher prevalence of direct aggression, behavioural externalization, and involvement in disruptive peer interactions [14,15]. These gender-related emotional profiles may influence both the experience and expression of bullying behaviours during Primary Education.

Despite increasing evidence linking bullying and emotional health, important gaps remain regarding the simultaneous assessment of bullying involvement, self-esteem, and perceived emotional intelligence in Spanish primary school populations from a school nursing perspective. In addition, few studies have explored these relationships using a multidimensional and gender-sensitive framework prior to preventive psychoeducational interventions.

From the perspective of school nursing, early identification of emotional vulnerability factors constitutes a key strategy for the prevention of bullying and the promotion of emotionally healthy school environments [16]. School nurses may play a fundamental role in implementing evidence-based preventive interventions focused on emotional education, psychosocial support, resilience promotion, and early identification of interpersonal conflict among students. From a public health perspective, school nursing interventions may contribute to improving school climate, emotional well-being, and psychosocial adjustment during critical developmental stages.

Therefore, the aim of the present study was to analyse the relationships between school bullying, self-esteem, and emotional intelligence in Primary Education students from five educational centres in Madrid, examining differences according to sex and school context prior to the implementation of a nurse-led educational intervention.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Design

A quantitative, observational, descriptive-correlational, and cross-sectional study was conducted using baseline data collected prior to the implementation of a school nursing educational intervention aimed at bullying prevention and emotional health promotion.

The study forms part of a broader quasi-experimental longitudinal research project with a pretest–posttest design developed in five primary schools located in the southern area of Madrid, Spain. For confidentiality purposes, participating schools were anonymized and identified as Centre 1, Centre 2, Centre 3, Centre 4, and Centre 5.

The study was reported in accordance with the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) guidelines for cross-sectional studies.

2.2. Study Population

The study population consisted of Primary Education students enrolled in the 4th, 5th, and 6th grades from five participating educational centres located in Madrid, Spain. A total of 507 students participated in the study, with a mean age of 10.08 years (SD = 0.82). The sample presented a balanced sex distribution, comprising 50.7% female students and 46.2% male students, while 3.1% of participants did not report their sex or selected another category.

The participating schools were selected to represent different educational contexts within the study area and were anonymized as Centre 1, Centre 2, Centre 3, Centre 4, and Centre 5 to ensure institutional confidentiality.

2.3. Inclusion Criteria

Students were eligible for participation if they met all of the following criteria: (1) enrolment in one of the participating educational centers; (2) attendance in the 4th, 5th, or 6th grades of Primary Education; (3) provision of written informed consent by a parent or legal guardian; and (4) willingness to participate in the study.

2.4. Sample Size and Participants

Participants were recruited through non-probabilistic convenience sampling based on the accessibility and voluntary participation of the educational centres involved in the intervention programme. A total of 507 students met the eligibility criteria and completed the study questionnaires, constituting the final analytical sample.

Questionnaires containing incomplete responses or presenting significant missing data that prevented statistical analysis were excluded. The final sample size exceeded the minimum number of participants required to provide adequate statistical power for descriptive, comparative, and correlational analyses, allowing for a robust evaluation of the relationships between school bullying, self-esteem, and perceived emotional intelligence among Primary Education students.

2.5. Ethical Procedures

The study was conducted in accordance with the ethical principles established in the Declaration of Helsinki and current regulations governing research involving minors and the protection of personal data.

Participation was voluntary, anonymous, and confidential. Written informed consent was obtained from parents or legal guardians prior to data collection, and verbal assent was obtained from all participating students.

The study protocol was approved by the Research Ethics Committee for Human Subjects of Universitat Jaume I (Reference: CEISH/08/2025).

Data confidentiality and participant privacy were guaranteed throughout all phases of the study in accordance with the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and Spanish Organic Law 3/2018 on Personal Data Protection and Guarantee of Digital Rights.

2.6. Instruments

Three validated psychometric instruments were used to assess school bullying involvement, self-esteem, and perceived emotional intelligence among the participating students.

2.6.1. Peer Harassment Questionnaire (PHQ)

School bullying involvement was assessed using the Peer Harassment Questionnaire (PHQ), a validated instrument designed to evaluate experiences related to peer victimization, aggression, and bullying involvement in school settings [6]. The questionnaire provides a global bullying involvement score, with higher scores indicating greater exposure to bullying-related behaviours. For descriptive purposes, bullying involvement levels were categorized as low, moderate, or high. Previous studies conducted in Spanish child and adolescent populations have demonstrated adequate psychometric properties, including high internal consistency, construct validity, and reliability [6,7]. In the present study, the instrument demonstrated excellent internal consistency.

2.6.2. Self-Esteem Questionnaire for Primary Education (A-EP)

Self-esteem was evaluated using the Self-Esteem Questionnaire for Primary Education (A-EP), a psychometric instrument specifically developed and validated for Primary Education students [8]. The scale assesses students’ self-perception and emotional self-concept through a global self-esteem score, with higher scores indicating more positive levels of self-esteem. For interpretative purposes, self-esteem scores were classified as low, moderate, or high. Previous validation studies have reported adequate reliability and validity for assessing self-esteem in Spanish school-aged populations [8]. The questionnaire showed good internal consistency and adequate psychometric properties in the present sample.

2.6.3. Trait Meta-Mood Scale (TMMS-24)

Perceived emotional intelligence was assessed using the Trait Meta-Mood Scale (TMMS-24), a validated self-report instrument composed of three dimensions: Emotional Attention, Emotional Clarity, and Emotional Repair [5]. Emotional Attention refers to the awareness and monitoring of emotions, Emotional Clarity assesses emotional understanding, and Emotional Repair evaluates the ability to regulate and manage emotional states. Higher scores indicate better perceived emotional competencies. Previous studies have demonstrated adequate psychometric properties and internal consistency of the TMMS-24 in Spanish-speaking populations [5]. In the present study, the TMMS-24 demonstrated good-to-excellent internal consistency across all dimensions analysed.

2.7. Data Collection Procedure

Data collection was conducted collectively within the participating schools during regular school hours between October 2025 and January 2026.

Questionnaires were administered in classroom settings under the supervision of the research team to ensure standardized administration procedures and adequate comprehension of the instructions. Participants completed the questionnaires anonymously using coded identification numbers, thereby guaranteeing confidentiality and preventing personal identification.

Prior to data collection, authorization was obtained from the participating school administrations and teaching staff. Parents or legal guardians provided written informed consent, and all students were informed about the voluntary, anonymous, and confidential nature of the study before completing the questionnaires.

2.8. Statistical Analysis

Statistical analyses were performed using IBM SPSS Statistics version XX (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA).

Descriptive statistics were calculated for all study variables. Categorical variables were expressed as frequencies and percentages, whereas continuous variables were summarized using means, standard deviations, minimum values, and maximum values.

The normality of continuous variables was assessed using the Shapiro–Wilk test. Comparisons according to sex and educational centre were performed using Pearson’s chi-square test for categorical variables and Student’s t-test or the Mann–Whitney U test for continuous variables, as appropriate.

Effect sizes were calculated using Cohen’s d for continuous variables and Cramer’s V for categorical variables and interpreted according to conventional criteria proposed by Cohen.

Associations between school bullying, self-esteem, and the dimensions of perceived emotional intelligence were examined using Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r). Correlation strength was interpreted according to established psychometric guidelines.

All statistical tests were two-tailed, and statistical significance was established at p < 0.05.

2.9. Theoretical Framework

The present study is based on a psychosocial and school nursing framework that conceptualizes school bullying as a multidimensional phenomenon influenced by emotional and interpersonal factors. Within this perspective, self-esteem and perceived emotional intelligence are considered key protective resources that contribute to children’s psychological adjustment, social competence, and adaptive conflict resolution.

Emotional intelligence, understood as the ability to perceive, understand, and regulate emotions, may enhance resilience and facilitate healthier peer relationships, thereby reducing vulnerability to bullying involvement. Similarly, self-esteem has been consistently associated with emotional well-being, positive self-perception, and effective coping strategies, acting as a protective factor against victimization and aggressive behaviours.

From a school nursing perspective, the early identification of emotional vulnerability and the promotion of emotional competencies constitute essential components of health promotion and bullying prevention programmes. School nurses are strategically positioned to implement psychoeducational interventions aimed at strengthening emotional regulation, self-esteem, and interpersonal skills, contributing to safer and more supportive educational environments.

Accordingly, this study is grounded on the assumption that higher levels of emotional intelligence and self-esteem are associated with lower levels of school bullying involvement, providing a theoretical basis for the development of nurse-led interventions focused on emotional health promotion in Primary Education.

3. Results

A total of 507 Primary Education students from five educational centers in Madrid participated in the study. The mean age of the sample was 10.08 years (SD = 0.82), and participants were relatively evenly distributed across the 4th, 5th, and 6th grades. Female students represented 50.7% of the sample, male students 46.2%, and 3.1% did not report their sex or selected another category.

Baseline self-esteem scores indicated moderate-to-high levels of self-esteem within the overall sample (M = 26.61, SD = 4.38). Descriptive characteristics according to educational center, including age, sex distribution, educational grade, and mean self-esteem scores, are presented in Table 1.

Table 2 presents the internal consistency reliability coefficients of the instruments administered in the study. All scales demonstrated good-to-excellent reliability, with Cronbach’s alpha values ranging from 0.85 to 0.90, supporting the adequacy of the instruments for assessing school bullying, self-esteem, and perceived emotional intelligence in the study population.

Table 3 presents the distribution of school bullying levels across the five participating educational centers at pretest. Moderate bullying was the most prevalent category in the overall sample, accounting for 51.3% of participants, whereas 35.9% and 12.8% were classified as having low and high bullying levels, respectively. Although slight variations were observed in the distribution of bullying levels across educational centers, moderate bullying remained the predominant category in all schools. Comparative analysis showed no statistically significant differences according to educational center (Pearson’s χ² = 8.38, p = 0.397; Cramer’s V = 0.09), indicating a negligible association between school context and bullying level.

Table 4 presents the distribution of self-esteem levels according to sex across the five participating educational centres at pretest. Moderate self-esteem was the most prevalent category in both sexes, accounting for 59.8% of male students and 56.0% of female students.

Female students consistently showed higher proportions of high self-esteem and lower proportions of low self-esteem than male students across the participating educational centres. Overall, these differences were statistically significant (p = 0.022; Cramer’s V = 0.18), indicating a small but meaningful association between sex and self-esteem level.

Table 5 presents the distribution of school bullying levels according to sex across the five participating educational centres at pretest. Moderate bullying was the most prevalent category in both sexes, accounting for 53.8% of male students and 49.0% of female students.

Male students consistently showed higher proportions of high bullying levels and lower proportions of low bullying levels than female students across the participating educational centres. Overall, these differences were statistically significant (p = 0.009; Cramer’s V = 0.22), indicating a small-to-moderate association between sex and school bullying level.

Table 6 presents the TMMS-24 emotional intelligence dimensions according to sex across the five participating educational centres at pretest. Female students consistently obtained higher mean scores than male students in emotional attention, emotional clarity, and emotional repair.

Overall, these differences reached statistical significance (p = 0.012) and were associated with a moderate effect size (Cohen’s d = 0.52), indicating that girls reported better perceived emotional competencies than boys across the participating educational centres. This pattern was consistently observed for the three emotional intelligence dimensions evaluated by the TMMS-24.

Table 7 presents the correlations between school bullying, self-esteem, and the emotional intelligence dimensions assessed by the TMMS-24 at pretest. School bullying showed significant negative correlations with self-esteem (r = −0.42, p < 0.001), emotional attention (r = −0.18, p = 0.002), emotional clarity (r = −0.37, p < 0.001), and emotional repair (r = −0.41, p < 0.001).

Conversely, self-esteem was positively correlated with emotional attention (r = 0.32, p < 0.001), emotional clarity (r = 0.51, p < 0.001), and emotional repair (r = 0.56, p < 0.001). Significant positive associations were also observed among the emotional intelligence dimensions, with the strongest correlation identified between emotional clarity and emotional repair (r = 0.63, p < 0.001). Figure 1 provides a graphical representation of these relationships, illustrating the overall correlation network between school bullying, self-esteem, and emotional intelligence dimensions.

4. Discussion

The present study examined the relationships between school bullying, self-esteem, and perceived emotional intelligence among Primary Education students from five educational centers in Madrid prior to the implementation of a nurse-led educational intervention. Three principal findings emerged. First, moderate bullying was the predominant profile across all participating schools, with no statistically significant differences according to educational center. Second, female students consistently reported higher levels of self-esteem and perceived emotional intelligence than male students. Third, school bullying was significantly associated with lower self-esteem and poorer emotional competencies, particularly emotional clarity and emotional repair, highlighting the importance of emotional adjustment as a protective factor during childhood.

Moderate levels of bullying involvement were identified across the sample, with approximately one in eight students presenting high bullying scores. These findings are consistent with previous epidemiological studies reporting that bullying remains highly prevalent during late childhood and preadolescence and continues to represent a major psychosocial and public health concern within educational settings [1,2]. Although slight descriptive variations were observed across educational centers, no statistically significant differences in bullying distribution were identified. This finding suggests that bullying constitutes a widespread phenomenon across school contexts rather than being restricted to specific educational settings, reinforcing the need for universal preventive strategies implemented at the whole-school level [3,4].

One of the principal findings of the study was the significant inverse relationship identified between bullying involvement and emotional adjustment variables. Students presenting higher bullying scores reported lower levels of self-esteem, emotional attention, emotional clarity, and emotional repair. These findings are consistent with previous research suggesting that emotional dysregulation, difficulties in emotional understanding, and negative self-perception are strongly associated with both peer victimization and aggressive interpersonal behaviors during childhood and adolescence [5,6,7].

Particularly relevant was the association observed between bullying and emotional repair. Students with poorer perceived ability to regulate and manage emotional states showed greater involvement in bullying-related situations. Emotional regulation difficulties may contribute to maladaptive coping responses, interpersonal conflict, impulsive behaviors, and poorer psychosocial adaptation in school environments [8]. Likewise, the strongest positive correlations identified between emotional clarity and emotional repair (r = 0.63) and between self-esteem and emotional repair (r = 0.56) reinforce the role of emotional regulation as a protective factor for resilience, adaptive peer interactions, and healthy psychosocial development during childhood.

Similarly, self-esteem demonstrated moderate-to-strong positive correlations with all emotional intelligence dimensions, especially emotional clarity and emotional repair. These findings reinforce existing evidence supporting emotional competencies as protective factors for psychological well-being, social adaptation, and healthy interpersonal functioning in school-aged children [9,10]. Students with greater emotional understanding and regulation abilities may be better equipped to cope with social stressors, manage peer conflict, and maintain more positive self-concepts.

Sex-related differences represented another important finding of the study. Female students consistently reported higher levels of self-esteem and emotional intelligence, whereas male students showed greater involvement in bullying behaviors and less adaptive emotional profiles. These results are consistent with previous literature indicating that girls tend to demonstrate higher emotional awareness, emotional processing abilities, and interpersonal sensitivity, while boys more frequently exhibit externalizing behaviors, direct aggression, and behavioral dysregulation during childhood [11,12]. From a psychosocial perspective, these differences may be partially explained by sociocultural and educational factors influencing emotional socialization processes, coping strategies, and interpersonal interaction patterns from early developmental stages. Consequently, bullying prevention programs should incorporate gender-sensitive approaches capable of addressing the specific emotional and relational needs of boys and girls within school settings.

Implications for Nursing Practice

The present findings highlight the important role of school nurses in the early identification and prevention of bullying-related emotional vulnerability among Primary Education students. The significant associations identified between bullying involvement, low self-esteem, and poorer emotional competencies suggest that routine emotional and psychosocial screening within school settings may facilitate the early detection of students at risk of peer victimization, emotional maladjustment, and interpersonal difficulties. Incorporating validated emotional assessment tools into school health programs could support the development of preventive and individualized nursing interventions focused on emotional well-being and psychosocial resilience.

Furthermore, school nurses may contribute substantially to bullying prevention through the implementation of psychoeducational interventions aimed at strengthening emotional intelligence, emotional regulation skills, self-esteem, and adaptive conflict resolution strategies. Nurse-led programs focused on emotional education and mental health promotion may improve school coexistence, reduce bullying-related behaviors, and foster healthier interpersonal relationships among students. These interventions may be particularly relevant during late childhood and preadolescence, a developmental stage characterized by increased emotional sensitivity and vulnerability to peer-group dynamics.

The findings also reinforce the importance of interdisciplinary collaboration between school nurses, teachers, psychologists, families, and educational administrators in addressing bullying from a holistic and preventive perspective. Comprehensive school mental health approaches integrating emotional health promotion, early psychosocial support, and school climate improvement strategies may contribute to creating safer and more emotionally supportive educational environments. Consequently, the integration of school nursing into multidisciplinary mental health and bullying prevention frameworks should be considered a relevant public health strategy within educational systems.

Strengths and Limitations

This study presents several methodological strengths. First, its multicenter design and the inclusion of students from different educational contexts increase the ecological validity and transferability of the findings. Second, the simultaneous assessment of school bullying, self-esteem, and emotional intelligence using validated psychometric instruments with high internal consistency provides a comprehensive multidimensional perspective on psychosocial functioning during childhood. Third, the incorporation of effect size measures and correlation analyses strengthens the robustness and interpretability of the reported associations. Finally, the gender-sensitive analytical approach contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of emotional and relational dynamics in Primary Education populations.

Nevertheless, several limitations should be acknowledged. The cross-sectional nature of this pretest analysis does not allow causal relationships between variables to be established. In addition, the use of self-report measures may introduce social desirability and response biases. Although the sample size was substantial, participants were recruited through convenience sampling from a limited geographical area, which may reduce the generalizability of the findings to other educational contexts or populations.

Future longitudinal analyses derived from post-intervention and follow-up assessments will be necessary to evaluate the effectiveness of the nurse-led educational program and to determine whether improvements in emotional competencies are associated with reductions in bullying involvement over time. Further research should also explore the potential mediating role of emotional intelligence and self-esteem in the relationship between school climate and bullying behaviors.

Despite these limitations, the present findings provide relevant evidence regarding the emotional and psychosocial factors associated with school bullying among Primary Education students and reinforce the importance of implementing preventive strategies focused on emotional health promotion within school communities. The results support the growing role of school nursing in the development of integrated, school-based mental health interventions aimed at improving psychosocial well-being, strengthening emotional competencies, and preventing bullying during childhood.

5. Conclusion

The present study demonstrates that school bullying is significantly associated with lower self-esteem and poorer perceived emotional intelligence among Primary Education students, reinforcing the importance of emotional competencies as protective factors for children’s psychosocial well-being. Students with better emotional clarity, emotional repair, and self-esteem reported lower involvement in bullying-related situations, highlighting the close interrelationship between emotional health and peer relationships within the school environment.

Significant sex-related differences were identified, with female students reporting higher levels of self-esteem and emotional competencies and male students showing greater involvement in bullying behaviors. These findings support the need for gender-sensitive preventive strategies that address the specific emotional and relational needs of children during late childhood and preadolescence.

From a school nursing perspective, the results emphasize the value of early emotional assessment and nurse-led psychoeducational interventions aimed at strengthening emotional intelligence, promoting self-esteem, and preventing bullying. Integrating emotional health promotion into routine school health programs may contribute to fostering resilience, improving school coexistence, and supporting children’s mental well-being.

Overall, this study provides evidence supporting multidisciplinary, school-based approaches that place emotional education at the center of bullying prevention strategies. Future longitudinal and intervention studies are warranted to evaluate the long-term effectiveness of these programs and their impact on children’s emotional development and school mental health.