Transforming Municipal Solid Waste into Value: A Critical Review of Technologies from Bin to Circularity

Municipal solid waste (MSW) management is a critical challenge to advancing recycling and circular economic approaches. This review provides a comprehensive overview of MSW management, encompassing sourcing, policy frameworks, characterization techniques, separation technologies, preprocessing strategies, and utilization pathways. First, generation patterns and sourcing mechanisms are discussed in both U.S. and global contexts, with emphasis on the influence of policy frameworks on waste reduction and diversion. Second, characterization techniques are evaluated, focusing on physical and chemical analysis for material recyclability. Third, sorting technologies are critically re-viewed, covering conventional methods and emerging sensor-based approaches. Pre-processing techniques are then evaluated for their role in improving downstream con-version efficiency. Finally, valorization pathways such as waste-to-syngas, waste-to-biochar, and waste-to-sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) are assessed in terms of their role in climate mitigation and the circular economy. It is anticipated that this re-view provides a foundational reference for researchers, policymakers, and industry stakeholders aiming to strengthen the recyclability infrastructure and maximize the efficiency of MSW management systems in the framework of the circular economy.