Toward a Qur’anic Theory of Qibla: Reassessing Sacred Direction Through Mixed-Methods Analysis

1. Introduction

For more than fourteen centuries, Muslim scholarship has produced an extensive body of literature concerning the Qibla, the direction toward which Muslims orient themselves during ritual prayer. Yet despite the breadth of this tradition, contemporary discourse on the Qibla is marked by profound conceptual confusion. Traditional juristic manuals, sectarian interpretations, medieval astronomical treatises, and modern technological tools-from compasses to smartphone Qibla apps-have all attempted to define or locate the Qibla with precision. These diverse approaches have generated an ever-expanding catalogue of explanations that frequently resemble speculative debate rather than disciplined inquiry. One may compare this situation to the absurdity of debating “how many eggs a horse can lay”, a question that is, by its very nature, misguided. The multiplicity of ritual, astronomical, and doctrinal claims surrounding the Qibla has thus produced a debate in which scholars often argue over “how often the horse lays eggs,” “whether they are white or black,” or “whether their shape resembles a circle or a camel’s egg.”

This intellectual fragmentation persists because the majority of these interpretations have not been rooted in a systematic, Qur’an-centric theoretical framework. Rather than beginning with the Qur’an’s own epistemology and definitions, traditional understandings typically start with later historical narratives-such as Hadith collections, medieval legal schools, and post-Qur’anic biographical literature subsequently read those assumptions back into the Qur’an. The result is a circular intellectual tradition in which the meaning of Qibla is predetermined by inherited narratives rather than discovered through textual analysis. Classical and modern scholars alike have therefore continued to discuss procedural questions-how to calculate the Qibla with spherical trigonometry, how to reconcile magnetic declination with prayer compasses, or which mosque in which city represents the correct benchmark-without ever addressing the foundational semantic question: How does the Qur’an itself define the Qibla?

This lacuna is striking, given the Qur’an’s explicit claim to offer clarity, detail, and guidance in matters of religious practice and moral orientation (Q: 6:114; 16:89). It is also notable that the Qur’an speaks extensively about orientation, direction, witnesshood, centrality, and sanctuary-but nowhere does it present the Qibla as a technical or geometric formula tied to a fixed earthly structure. The verses most frequently cited regarding Qibla, primarily Q: 2:142-150, emphasise divine testing, communal identity, guidance, and the authority of revelation rather than architectural or geographical specificity. The Qur’an even explicitly warns that righteousness is not defined by turning one’s face toward the East or the West (Q: 2:177), thereby critiquing the reduction of sacred orientation to mere spatial alignment. Yet despite such explicit statements, the dominant inherited view continues to treat the Qibla as a fixed point in the desert city of Mecca, connected to a structure that later Islamic historiography identified as the Kaaba.

1.1. Problem Statement

The concept of Qibla-commonly understood today as the fixed physical direction Muslims face during ritual prayer-occupies a central place in Islamic religious identity. Classical Muslim scholarship establishes Mecca, specifically the Kaʿba, as the focal point of Qibla, based almost entirely on Hadith literature, Sirah narratives, and post-Qur’anic juristic interpretation (Ibn Kathīr, 2003; Al-Ṭabarī, 1987). However, a careful examination of the Qur’anic text reveals striking discrepancies between this conventional narrative and the Qur’an’s own discourse on directionality, sanctuary, and guidance. The Qur’an repeatedly asserts its sufficiency, clarity, and completeness as a source of legislation (Q: 6:114; 10:37; 16:89; 41:3), yet the dominant Qibla doctrine relies extensively on extra-Qur’anic materials that emerged more than a century after the Qur’an’s revelation.

Moreover, the Qur’anic passages that discuss the Qibla-especially those in Surah al-Baqarah (Q: 2:142-152)-do not explicitly mention Mecca or Medina, nor do they instruct facing any structure for ritual prayer. Instead, these verses link Qibla to guidance (huda), testing of sincerity, and the Straight Path (sirat mustaqim) (Q: 2:142, 2:143), suggesting a moral-epistemic orientation rather than a geographic one. This discrepancy raises a foundational problem: to what extent do conventional Qibla theories accurately represent Qur’anic intent?

A further complication arises from Qur’an 10:87, which instructs Moses and Aaron to make their homes in Egypt “a Qibla,” indicating multiple Qiblas, each functioning as centres of guidance and community stability. This model is incompatible with the contemporary belief in a single global physical direction. Together, these textual tensions highlight the need for a rigorous Qur’an-centric re-evaluation of the Qibla concept.

The methodological problem with this conventional understanding is not only that it relies on post-Qur’anic sources; it also presupposes an identification between Mecca and al-Masjid al-Haram that the Qur’an never explicitly makes. The Qur’an mentions Bakka only once (Q: 3:96), and Mecca only once (Q: 48:24), and these two terms occur in entirely different contexts without any indication of synonymy. Moreover, the Qur’an’s descriptions of the sacred sanctuary emphasize qualities such as abundant vegetation (Q: 2:126), flowing water (Q: 16:10-11), valley topography (Q: 14:37), and sanctuary security (Q: 29:67)-features that correspond poorly to Mecca’s arid environment but align closely with the ecological and geographical characteristics of the Hermon/Baqa Valley region (Nasr, 2006). Yet these details have rarely been examined in classical or contemporary Qur’anic scholarship, largely because interpretive traditions have been shaped by inherited assumptions rather than textual analysis.

Thus, the core problem this study seeks to address is not the technical question of “which direction Muslims must face,” but the deeper theoretical omission: the absence of a Qur’an-based conceptual definition of Qibla. The present study, therefore, develops a Qur’an-centric analytical model that bypasses post-Qur’anic historiography entirely, focusing instead on the Qur’an’s own lexical, semantic, and contextual descriptions of Qibla and al-Masjid al-Haram. By examining term frequency, semantic clustering, functional attributes, and geographic correlations, this study approaches the Qibla not as a ritual artefact but as a multi-dimensional concept embedded within the Qur’an’s broader discourse on guidance, community identity, and sacred space.

This approach is not only methodologically rigorous but also necessary, given the Qur’an’s insistence that its own explanatory scope is comprehensive and sufficient (Q: 10:37; 41:3). If the Qur’an claims to contain clear guidance, then a coherent Qibla theory must emerge from the Qur’an itself rather than from later interpretive layers. By returning to the Qur’an as the primary epistemic source, this research provides a new framework for understanding the Qibla, one that avoids the speculative contradictions of inherited discourse and instead reconstructs sacred orientation as the Qur’an presents it: a direction toward divine guidance, moral responsibility, and the sanctuary established for all humanity.

1.2. Limitations of Conventional Qibla Theories

Conventional Qibla theory suffers from at least four methodological limitations.

First, it depends heavily on Hadith literature, Sirah narratives, and medieval historiography sources compiled generations after the Qur’an and shaped by political and sectarian contexts (Crone, 1987; Wansbrough, 1977). These narratives frequently contradict the Qur’an’s geographical, historical, and theological descriptions.

Second, the Mecca-centric paradigm lacks linguistic support within the Qur’an. Terms such as al-Masjid al-Haram, Bakka, al-bayt, and ḥaram are described in functional, ecological, and moral terms-not architectural or topographic ones-and often conflict with the known environmental history of Mecca (Gibson, 2011).

Third, conventional theory imposes ritual directionality not mandated by the Qur’an. The Qur’an explicitly states that righteousness is not defined by turning one’s face east or west (Q: 2:177), challenging the very basis of the physical-directional model.

Fourth, mainstream scholarship typically avoids reconciling the multiple Qiblas mentioned in Qur’an 10:87 with the concept of a single fixed direction, resulting in unresolved inconsistencies.

These limitations justify the need for a methodologically independent, text-driven reconstruction.

1.3. Qur’an-Centric Reconstruction as an Alternative Paradigm

This study adopts a Qur’an-centric reconstruction framework grounded exclusively in the Qur’an’s own epistemological claims (Q: 6:114; 16:89). By treating the Qur’an as a linguistically structured corpus and a self-interpreting text, the research identifies semantic networks linking Qibla, sirat mustaqim, ḥaram, bayt, and Bakka.

Qualitative hermeneutics allows for reconstructing theological and conceptual meanings based on internal coherence, thematic progression, and intertextual linkages between surahs. For example, the Qibla discourse in Qur’an 2:142-152 cannot be separated from the moral framing of Qur’an 2:177 or from the Abrahamic ethical covenant in Qur’an 2:124-129.

Meanwhile, quantitative corpus methods-term frequency mapping, co-occurrence matrices, and semantic clustering-provide statistical support that reinforces or challenges hermeneutic interpretations (Saeed, 2006; Rahman, 1980). Geographic correlation testing then validates whether Qur’anic sanctuary descriptions align with the environmental features of Mecca or alternative regions such as the Hermon/Baqa Valley.

This integrated paradigm offers a rigorous, replicable alternative to traditional historical-theological models.

1.4. Research Questions

This study addresses four primary research questions:

• How does the Qur’an define Qibla, and what semantic patterns emerge across the text?
• Does the Qur’an support the Mecca-centric Qibla theory, or does it propose an alternative model of sacred orientation?
• What is the Qur’an’s own description of al-Masjid al-Haram and Bakka, and where do these descriptions point geographically and functionally?
• How do qualitative hermeneutics and quantitative corpus analysis converge to explain the Qur’anic Qibla concept?

1.5. Research Objectives

The study’s objectives are:

• To reconstruct the Qur’anic meaning of Qibla through hermeneutic textual analysis.
• To identify semantic networks linking Qibla with sirat mustaqim, sanctuary law, and moral orientation.
• To compare Qur’anic sanctuary descriptors with real geographic regions.
• To evaluate the adequacy of conventional Qibla theories in light of Qur’anic evidence.
• To establish a new Qur’an-based conceptual framework for sacred geography and sacred direction.

1.6. Scope and Delimitations

This study is delimited strictly to:

• the Arabic Qur’an as the primary and exclusive interpretive source;
• mixed-method analysis, integrating qualitative hermeneutics and quantitative corpus linguistics;
• geographic correlation only for validation, not interpretation.

The study explicitly excludes:

• Hadith literature,
• Sirah traditions,
• medieval tafsir,
• fiqh-based doctrinal assumptions,
• political or sectarian narratives.

This delimitation ensures methodological purity and protects the reconstruction from post-Qur’anic influence.

1.7. Contribution to Scholarship

This research contributes to Qur’anic studies, Islamic theology, and sacred geography in several foundational ways.

First, it offers the first comprehensive Qur’an-only reconstruction of Qibla, filling a major gap in contemporary scholarship where traditional interpretations are rarely tested against the Qur’anic corpus.

Second, it resolves longstanding contradictions by demonstrating that Qibla is a moral-epistemic orientation, not a geographic direction-consistent with Qur’an 2:142, 2:143, and 2:177.

Third, it provides the first mixed-method statistical model comparing Qur’anic sanctuary descriptors with actual geography, showing a stronger correlation with the Hermon/Baqa Valley than Mecca.

Fourth, it proposes a new paradigm of Qur’anic sacred geography, reframing al-Masjid al-Haram as a functional sanctuary of guidance and revelation, not an architectural structure.

Fifth, it challenges existing Islamic historiography by returning the interpretive authority to the Qur’an itself, as the text demands (Q: 6:114).

Through these contributions, the study opens new avenues for the academic study of Qur’anic cosmology, directionality, and the historical development of Islamic ritual theory.

1.8. Paradigm Shift Statement

This study represents a fundamental paradigm shift in the understanding of Qibla, sacred geography, and the identity of al-Masjid al-Ḥaram by relocating the conceptual centre of analysis from post-Qur’anic tradition to the internal epistemology of the Qur’an itself. Contrary to classical and modern assumptions that treat Qibla as a fixed architectural direction rooted in Meccan sacred history, the Qur’an presents sacred direction as an epistemic and ethical orientation grounded in sirat mustaqim, prophetic mission, and the universal accessibility of divine guidance. The findings challenge the historical layering that transformed Qibla into a spatial-legal ritual and reposition al-Masjid al-Ḥaram as a functional sanctuary system rather than a built structure. Similarly, the identification of Bakka shifts from inherited Meccan localisation to a textually coherent, ecologically verifiable sanctuary-region consistent with the Hermon/Baqa Valley.

This paradigm shift reframes Islamic sacred geography from architecture to epistemology, from geographic fixation to moral alignment, and from inherited tradition to Qur’anic coherence-offering a renewed methodological foundation for Islamic studies based on linguistic precision, ecological correspondence, and intra-Qur’anic hermeneutics.

2. Literature Review

The literature on Qibla, sacred geography, and the identity of al-Masjid al-Ḥaram is vast, yet overwhelmingly shaped by post-Qur’anic narratives that assume-rather than demonstrate Mecca-centric model. Conventional Islamic scholarship, classical tafsir, early historiography, Hadith literature, and modern academic analyses all contribute to a long-standing interpretive tradition that places Mecca at the centre of sacred direction. However, this body of literature rarely subjects its foundational assumptions to a Qur’an-first epistemic examination. As a result, key concepts such as Qibla, Bakka, and al-Masjid al-Ḥaram are often interpreted through inherited historical frameworks rather than through the linguistic, thematic, and semantic logic of the Qur’anic text itself. In recent years, emerging Qur’an-centric approaches have begun challenging these paradigms by prioritising internal textual coherence, re-evaluating the relationship between ritual direction and ethical orientation, and questioning the historical plausibility of traditional sacred-geographical claims. This literature review synthesises the full range of conventional, critical, and Qur’an-centric scholarship, identifies methodological and epistemological limitations, and highlights the gaps that necessitate a reconstruction grounded exclusively in the Qur’an’s internal evidence.

2.1. Conventional Islamic Scholarship

Conventional Islamic scholarship forms the dominant interpretive framework through which Muslims have historically understood Qibla, sacred direction, and the identity of al-Masjid al-Ḥaram. Rooted in classical tafsir, Hadith compilations, and Sirah narratives, this body of literature assumes a Mecca-centric model as an unquestioned starting point rather than a conclusion derived from the Qur’an. The exegetical tradition typically integrates Qur’anic verses into elaborate historical accounts of the Prophet’s life and early Muslim community, often reading meanings into the text that depend on post-Qur’anic constructions rather than internal semantic evidence. As a result, concepts such as Qibla are presented as fixed geographical mandates, and al-Masjid al-Ḥaram is framed as a specific architectural structure located in historical Mecca. While these sources have shaped Muslim devotional life for centuries, they exhibit methodological limitations, including reliance on late historical memories, unverified narrative chains, and interpretive circularity. Examining this tradition is essential for understanding how the Mecca-centric paradigm became established, and why it diverges from a Qur’an-centric reconstruction based on linguistic, thematic, and epistemic analysis.

2.1.1. The Mecca-Centric Qibla Narrative

The dominant narrative in Islamic scholarship asserts that the Qibla has always been oriented toward the Kaʿba in Mecca, with only a brief early period during which Muslims allegedly prayed toward Jerusalem before the “Qibla shift” occurred in Medina. This reconstruction rests almost entirely on Hadith compilations and Sirah traditions written 150-250 years after the Qur’an (Crone, 1987; Wansbrough, 1977). Classical scholars such as Ibn Hisham (n.d.), Al-Ṭabari (1987), and Ibn Kathir (2003) reproduce this narrative without subjecting it to Qur’anic scrutiny, reinforcing the presumption that Mecca was already a central sanctuary known to Jews, Christians, and Arabian tribes.

However, the Qur’an contains no explicit command directing believers to face Mecca for prayer. The passages often cited as evidence-primarily Qur’an 2:142-150-do not name Mecca, Medina, the Kaʿba, or any specific location. Instead, these verses frame Qibla as a divine test of sincerity (Q: 2:143), a marker distinguishing those who follow the Messenger from those who turn back, and a means of guiding the community toward a “straight path” (siraṭ mustaqim) (Q: 2:142). The absence of geographical identifiers stands in sharp contrast to the detailed topographical descriptions the Qur’an provides elsewhere for other events (e.g., Q: 20:80; 34:15). Thus, the Mecca-centric Qibla theory appears imposed onto the text rather than derived from it.

2.1.2. Sirah and Hadith as Historical Constructs

Modern historiography increasingly acknowledges that Sirah and Hadith literature are complex literary constructs rather than reliable historical records. These texts were transmitted orally for generations, codified under political pressures, and shaped by ideological needs (Motzki, 2005; Brown, 2014). Scholars such as Wansbrough (1977) demonstrate that Hadith function as scholastic tools for legitimising later jurisprudence rather than providing contemporaneous historical evidence. The “Qibla shift” narrative is particularly fragile because:

• It relies on late sources such as Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhari and Ṣaḥiḥ Muslim.
• It contradicts the Qur’anic chronology, which never places the Prophet in Medina during the early part of Surah al-Baqarah.
• It presumes a pre-existing Meccan Kaʿba cultic structure, despite the lack of archaeological or historical evidence for Mecca as a religious centre in the first millennium BCE or CE (Gibson, 2011).

Furthermore, Qur’an 10:87 describes Moses and Aaron establishing “houses as Qibla” in Egypt, indicating that Qibla may be contextual, functional, and communal-not a global architectural direction. Classical scholarship does not reconcile this with the Mecca-centric theory, highlighting a methodological gap.

2.1.3. Classical Tafsir Approaches and Their Methodological Weaknesses

Classical tafsir operates on the assumption that extra-Qur’anic materials must explain the Qur’an. Works by Al-Ṭabari (1987), Al-Qurṭubi (1952), and Ibn Kathir (2003) consistently subordinate textual analysis to prophetic traditions. This leads to several methodological flaws:

Circular reasoning: Tafsir starts by assuming the Kaʿba is the Qibla, then interprets Qur’an 2:142-150 accordingly. The method presupposes the conclusion.

Harmonisation bias: Contradictions between Hadith and Qur’anic discourse are resolved in favour of the Hadith corpus, diminishing the Qur’an’s role as the primary text.

Anachronistic geography: Classical exegetes project the medieval sacred geography of Mecca and Medina backwards onto the Qur’anic narrative, despite the Qur’an never identifying Mecca or Medina as centres of revelation during the Qibla discourse.

Neglect of linguistic structure: Tafsir rarely analyses root patterns, semantic clustering, or internal Qur’anic cross-referencing-essential tools for determining how the Qur’an defines its own terminology.

These weaknesses make classical tafsir insufficient for reconstructing a Qur’anic theory of sacred direction.

2.1.4. Orientalist and Modern Academic Analyses of Qibla

Western scholarship has tended to focus on the historical development of Islamic ritual more than its Qur’anic foundations. Crone and Cook (1977), for example, argue that early Islam developed outside the Hijaz, but they accept the traditional Qibla narrative due to a lack of alternative models. Other researchers have examined early mosque orientations, noting significant divergence from Meccan alignment (King, 2018). Some early mosques face Petra; others align with solstitial or cardinal directions rather than Mecca (Gibson, 2011). Yet these studies face three limitations:

• Data-driven but Qur’an-silent: They do not examine whether the Qur’an defines Qibla geographically at all.
• Architecture-centred: They assume “mosque alignment” equals “Qur’anic Qibla,” a claim the Qur’an itself does not support.
• Fragmentary evidence: Early Mosque remains are sparse and difficult to interpret without presupposing the very narrative under investigation.

Thus, Orientalist and modern academic studies critique the Mecca-centric model but fail to reconstruct a Qur’anic alternative.

2.1.5. Misinterpretations of “Bakka” in Modern Linguistic Literature

A recurring problem within modern linguistic and biblical studies is the persistent conflation of the Qur’anic term Bakka (بَكَّة) with the unrelated Semitic verb “to weep” (بكى). This confusion often appears in comparative analyses of Psalm 84 (“valley of Baca”) and in Western philological interpretations that assume phonetic similarity indicates semantic continuity. However, from a Qur’anic-linguistic standpoint, this conflation is both etymologically and morphologically invalid. The noun Bakka (بَكَّة)-as employed in Qur’an 3:96-belongs to the triliteral root ب ك ك, which carries the core semantic sense of crowding, pressing together, congestion, or density. Classical lexicons such as Lisan al-ʿArab and Mufradat al-Raghib describe the root as signifying spaces where movement is restricted due to a high concentration of people. This aligns with the Qur’anic portrayal of a sanctuary that attracts dense human gathering and is characterised by universal accessibility.

In contrast, the verb bakiya/baka (بكى)-meaning to weep-derives from the root ب ك ى, a different triliteral set with distinct morphological behaviour and semantic field. Its phonetic resemblance to “Bakka” is superficial and does not constitute linguistic equivalence. Conflating the two leads to interpretive distortions, suggesting that Bakka denotes sorrow, lamentation, or emotional symbolism, none of which appear in the Qur’anic context. Furthermore, this misreading introduces conceptual ambiguity into discussions of sacred geography by imposing non-Qur’anic semantic layers onto a term the Qur’an uses with geographical, functional, and sanctuary-related meaning.

Correcting this misunderstanding is essential for Qur’an-centric scholarship, especially given that the Qur’an asserts its own linguistic precision (Q: 41:3). Therefore, distinguishing between بَكَّة and بكى clarifies that Bakka is neither metaphorical nor emotional but a concrete sanctuary-region with identifiable ecological and functional markers. For this reason, the clarification belongs within the Qur’anic epistemic paradigm and directly challenges misinterpretations rooted in biblical philology or superficial etymological resemblance.

2.1.6. Archaeological and Historical Problems with Mecca

Mecca’s historical and archaeological status is deeply contested. Extensive surveys reveal:

• no pre-Islamic inscriptions mentioning Mecca,
• no archaeological remains from the first millennium BCE or early CE,
• no evidence of major trade networks linking Mecca to the incense routes claimed in Islamic tradition (Groom, 1981; Crone, 1987),
• no ancient maps or external records identifying Mecca as a sanctuary or pilgrimage centre.

Additionally, Mecca’s geography does not match several Qur’anic descriptions:

• Qur’an 14:37 describes the sanctuary as a “valley without cultivation,” but Mecca has never been agriculturally barren-it contains a perennial well and historically supported date cultivation.
• Qur’an 3:96 mentions Bakka as the “first house established for humanity”, a bold claim difficult to reconcile with the lack of archaeological continuity in Mecca.
• Qur’an 2:125-129 describes Abraham and Ishmael building the House in an accessible, populated region, not an isolated mountain valley with no human settlement until late antiquity.

These contradictions suggest that Mecca may not represent the geographical referent of Qur’anic sanctuary terminology, and that earlier scholarly assumptions require re-evaluation.

2.2. Emerging Qur’anic Approaches

In recent decades, a growing body of scholarship has begun re-examining sacred geography and Qibla through a Qur’an-first hermeneutic that deliberately avoids reliance on post-Qur’anic narratives. These emerging approaches prioritise the Qur’an’s internal coherence, linguistic precision, and self-referential epistemology as the primary interpretive framework. Unlike conventional tafsir, they seek to reconstruct meaning by analysing root semantics, thematic linkages, intra-textual consistency, and the Qur’an’s functional descriptions of sanctuary and guidance. This trend represents a shift toward treating the Qur’an as an autonomous text, capable of defining its own categories without mediation by later historiography. Such approaches form the foundation for rethinking Qibla, Bakka, and al-Masjid al-Ḥaram beyond inherited Meccan assumptions.

2.2.1. Qur’anic Epistemology and Self-Referential Authority

Recent Qur’an-centric scholarship emphasises the Qur’an’s claim to self-sufficiency (Rahman, 1980; Saeed, 2006). Verses such as Qur’an 6:114 (“Shall I seek a judge other than God when He has revealed this Book fully detailed?”) and Qur’an 10:37 (“This Qur’an could not have been produced except by God”) position the text as an independent epistemological authority.

Within this framework, Qibla must be interpreted through the Qur’an’s internal semantic network-not through external tradition. This approach opens new scholarly possibilities:

• identifying Qibla as a test of obedience (Q: 2:143),
• linking Qibla to moral orientation rather than geography (Q: 2:177),
• contextualising the multiple Qiblas of Qur’an 10:87,
• evaluating sanctuary terminology (ḥaram, bayt, wadi, Bakka) through linguistic analysis rather than historical inference.

Such work forms the foundation for reconstructing a Qur’anic concept of directionality.

2.2.2. Studies Challenging Traditional Sacred Geography

A small but growing body of scholarship questions Mecca’s centrality. Gibson (2011) argues that early mosques faced a northern sanctuary, possibly in the Petra region. Crone (1987) suggests Islam’s origins lie outside the Hijaz. Hawting (1999) interprets Meccan tradition as a later theological creation intended to legitimise emerging Islamic identity.

While these works critique the traditional narrative, they do not systematically analyse Qur’anic sanctuary concepts, leaving the textual dimension underdeveloped. More recent Qur’anic studies (e.g., Sinai, 2014) emphasise intertextual and linguistic coherence but seldom apply these tools to reconstruct sacred geography. Thus, although emerging research challenges Mecca-centric historiography, a Qur’an-exclusive reconstruction of Qibla remains largely unexplored.

2.2.3. Hermeneutic Approaches to Directionality in the Qur’an

Hermeneutic scholarship identifies recurring Qur’anic motifs linking directionality to guidance, ethics, and covenantal testing (Neuwirth, 2010). The Qibla discourse fits within this framework:

• Qur’an 2:142-143 ties Qibla to identifying true followers.
• Qur’an 2:177 denies righteousness as “turning one’s face toward east or west.”
• Qur’an 6:126 identifies the “Straight Path” as the route of moral guidance.
• Qur’an 10:87 reveals Qibla as a communal organisation and spiritual orientation.

Hermeneutics thus supports a conceptual reading of Qibla, consistent with your qualitative reconstruction. However, these studies lack methodological integration with quantitative corpus analysis, leaving key questions unresolved.

2.3. Gaps and Weaknesses in Current Qur’an-Centric Research

Despite promising developments, Qur’an-centric studies have four major gaps:

• Lack of mixed-method integration: Most studies apply either hermeneutics or corpus linguistics, but not both.
• Insufficient focus on sanctuary terminology: Key terms (ḥaram, bayt, wadi, Bakka) remain understudied within a systematic lexical framework.
• Absence of geographical correlation testing: Qur’anic sanctuary descriptions have not been systematically compared with real-world regions such as the Hermon/Baqa Valley.
• Limited critique of the Mecca-centric paradigm: Many scholars challenge tradition but refrain from proposing alternative models.

2.4. Why Conventional and Modern Literature Fail to Explain the Qur’anic Qibla

When evaluated together, conventional Islamic literature, Orientalist scholarship, and modern studies share one fundamental weakness: none of them derive their Qibla theory from the Qur’an’s own internal evidence.

• Classical tafsir imposes Hadith assumptions onto the Qur’an.
• Orientalists critique Islamic historiography but do not reconstruct a Qur’anic model.
• Archaeological studies question Mecca but rarely analyse Qur’anic semantics.
• Modern Qur’an-centric scholarship is conceptually strong but methodologically incomplete.

Thus, existing literature cannot explain:

• the absence of Mecca in Qibla verses,
• the moral and epistemic framing of Qibla (Q: 2:142-143, 2:177),
• the multiple Qiblas of Qur’an 10:87,
• the sanctuary ecology described in Qur’an 14:37,
• the universality of the “first house” in 3:96,
• the link between Qibla and siraṭ mustaqim.

This failure creates a critical scholarly gap.

2.5. Need for a Mixed-Method Qur’anic Framework

Given these shortcomings, the literature demonstrates a clear need for:

• A Qur’an-only epistemology grounded in the text’s self-referential authority.
• Mixed-method analysis integrating hermeneutics, corpus linguistics, and geographical correlation.
• Reconstruction of Qibla based on Qur’anic semantics, not historical assumptions.
• Critical reassessment of Mecca’s role in Islamic sacred geography.
• A conceptual model linking Qibla to siraṭ mustaqim, moral orientation, and prophetic mission.

This study directly responds to this need by constructing a rigorous, evidence-based, and replicable Qur’anic framework for understanding Qibla.

3. Theoretical Framework

This study develops a Qur’an-exclusive theoretical model for understanding Qibla, sacred geography, and directional identity within the Qur’an. Unlike classical or historical reconstructions, this framework is rooted entirely in the Qur’anic text, following the principle that the Qur’an is “fully detailed” (Q: 6:114), “not forged” (Q: 10:37), and a revelation in which “nothing has been neglected” (Q: 16:89). The framework integrates hermeneutics, semantics, and structural analysis to reconstruct the conceptual architecture of Qibla without recourse to post-Qur’anic tradition.

3.1. Qur’an-Centric Epistemology (Q: 6:114; 10:37; 16:89)

The central epistemic foundation of this study is the Qur’an’s claim to be the authoritative, sufficient, and internally coherent source of guidance. The Qur’an explicitly rejects external authorities for judgment: “Shall I seek other than God as judge, when He has sent down the Book fully detailed?” (Q: 6:114). Similarly, Qur’an 10:37 affirms that the Qur’an is divinely authored and cannot be supplemented by human invention. Qur’an 16:89 declares that the Qur’an contains “clarification of all things” necessary for guidance. From these verses, three epistemic principles emerge:

• Textual sufficiency: Qibla must be reconstructed only from Qur’anic evidence.
• Internal coherence: Interpretations must align with the Qur’an’s structural and thematic patterns.
• Revelatory primacy: Later historical narratives cannot override Qur’anic semantics.

This epistemic foundation rejects the traditional reliance on Hadith and Sirah to interpret Qibla-sources that emerged centuries later and are not sanctioned as revelatory in the Qur’an.

3.2. Theory of Sirat Mustaqim (Qur’anic Directionality Principle)

The second theoretical pillar is the Qur’anic concept of sirat mustaqim-the “straight path.” Qibla discourse in Qur’an 2:142-150 explicitly links directional identity with sirat mustaqim:

“He guides whom He wills to a straight path.” (Q: 2:142)

This implies that Qibla’s primary function is moral and epistemic, not geographical. The Qur’an repeatedly defines sirat mustaqim as:

• the path of divine law (Q: 6:126),
• the path safeguarded from satanic deviation (Q: 7:16-17),
• the path upheld by prophets (Q: 36:61),
• the path distinguished by correct ethical conduct (Q: 2:177).

Thus, sirat mustaqim forms the directionality principle of the Qur’an: orientation is fundamentally moral, not spatial. This theoretical lens reveals that the Qur’an treats Qibla as an alignment with divine guidance rather than the physical act of turning toward a building. The Qibla in Qur’an 2:143 is described as a test distinguishing those who follow the Messenger epistemic and moral distinction, not a geographical one.

3.3. Theory of Sanctuary Functionality (al-Masjid al-Haram as a System)

The third theoretical axis conceptualises al-Masjid al-Haram not as an architectural site but as a functional sanctuary system. The Qur’an consistently describes al-Masjid al-Haram in terms of:

• security (amnan) (Q: 2:125; 29:67),
• accessibility to all humanity (Q: 22:25),
• a place where divine signs are manifest (Q: 3:97),
• a valley environment with specific ecological properties (Q: 14:37).

None of these characteristics suggests a walled structure, temple, or urban shrine. Instead, al-Masjid al-Haram appears as a protected sacred landscape, consistent with sanctuary traditions in Late Antiquity (Hawting, 1999). This theoretical interpretation positions al-Masjid al-Haram as:

• a region of revelation,
• a centre for the dissemination of divine knowledge,
• an ecological sanctuary supporting the ritual of ḥajj,
• a morally regulated space open to all humanity.

Interpreting the term masjid linguistically-“place of prostration” in the sense of devotion-further indicates a functional zone rather than a singular building.

3.4. Theory of Revelation Transmission (Bakka as a Guidance Hub)

The Qur’an identifies Bakka as the location of the “first house established for humanity” (Q: 3:96). This “house” is associated with:

• universal guidance,
• blessings,
• and manifest signs (Q: 3:97).

These descriptions imply a knowledge centre rather than a structure. In Qur’an 22:27, Abraham is instructed to proclaim pilgrimage to all people, linking Bakka with global access to revelation. Our prior research proposing Bakka as the Hermon/Baqa Valley corresponds with several Qur’anic features:

• abundant water sources (Q: 14:37 implies provision follows settlement),
• ecological diversity (contrast with Mecca’s sparse ecology),
• historical settlement patterns,
• regional religious significance in pre-Islamic antiquity.

Thus, this theoretical model conceptualises Bakka as a hub for revelation transmission, where humanity gathers for the proclamation, clarification, and dissemination of divine law.

3.5. Conceptual Model of Qibla as Epistemic Orientation

The fifth theoretical pillar reframes Qibla as an epistemic orientation: the direction toward which believers turn for truth and divine law. Several Qur’anic elements support this conceptualisation:

• Qibla is a test (imtiḥan), not a location (Q: 2:143): A geographical direction cannot logically distinguish believers from hypocrites, but epistemic alignment with divine revelation can.
• Righteousness is not turning faces east or west (Q: 2:177): This deconstructs the idea of physically directional worship.
• Q: 10:87 reveals plural Qiblas: Moses and Aaron instruct their community to establish houses “as Qibla,” indicating that Qibla is functional and contextual.
• Sirat mustaqim is the anchor of guidance: Thus, Qibla denotes orientation toward the straight path.
• The Prophet is told: “Wherever you come out, turn your face toward al-Masjid al-Haram” (Q: 2:150): Hermeneutically, “face” (wajh) often denotes intention, priority, and commitment (Q: 6:79; 2:112). This supports an epistemic interpretation rather than physical turning.

This model positions Qibla as alignment with God’s revealed system, not a physical direction.

3.6. Integration of Spatial, Moral, and Linguistic Axes

The final theoretical layer synthesises the preceding frameworks into a multidimensional model of Qibla. This model integrates:

• Spatial semantics: Sacred geography (Bakka, al-Masjid al-Haram, the protected valley) is conceptualised as a functional sanctuary system.
• Moral directionality: The axis of sirat mustaqim defines the ethical character of orientation and distinguishes genuine followers from pretenders.
• Linguistic structure: Qur’anic root analysis (q-b-l, ḥ-r-m, b-k-k) demonstrates consistency across verses and reveals conceptual-not architectural-usage of Qibla.

When combined, the result is a Qur’an-only theoretical reconstruction in which:

Qibla = epistemic orientation toward divine law

Sirat mustaqim = moral direction guiding human conduct

Al-Masjid al-Haram = sanctified knowledge-dissemination region

Bakka = revelation hub and universal human gathering place

This framework creates a comprehensive interpretive system for analysing Qibla without relying on extra-Qur’anic sources.

4. Methodology

This study employs a mixed-method Qur’an-centric methodology designed to reconstruct the concepts of Qibla, Bakka, and al-Masjid al-Ḥaram through the internal epistemic framework of the Qur’an. Rejecting post-Qur’anic textual dependencies, the approach integrates quantitative corpus linguistics, semantic clustering, lexical analysis, and geographic correlation with qualitative hermeneutics, thematic coherence, and intra-Qur’anic exegesis. This dual strategy ensures both empirical precision and interpretive depth. The methodology aims to identify how the Qur’an defines sacred direction and sanctuary identity by grounding the analysis in linguistic patterns, conceptual structures, and functional descriptions derived exclusively from the Qur’anic text.

4.1. Research Design

This study adopts a Qur’an-centric mixed-methods research design that integrates qualitative hermeneutic analysis and quantitative corpus-based linguistic modelling. The approach is grounded in the Qur’an’s self-declared epistemic authority and completeness (Q: 6:114; 10:64; 16:89; 41:3), which positions the Qur’an as the primary and sufficient source for defining foundational religious concepts such as Qibla, Sirat Mustaqim, and al-Masjid al-Haram. In keeping with this epistemic stance, the research excludes all post-Qur’anic sources, including Hadith, Sirah, medieval tafsir, and juristic reasoning, ensuring that analysis is not influenced by later historical layers or inherited doctrinal assumptions.

The qualitative component of the design focuses on in-depth hermeneutic reconstruction of key Qur’anic passages-especially Surah al-Baqarah’s Qibla discourse (Q: 2:142-152), the Sirat Mustaqim corpus, and the multi-Qibla model of Qur’an 10:87. This interpretive analysis seeks to uncover the semantic, structural, and theological coherence within the Qur’anic text, particularly where the Qur’an critiques ritual directionality (Q: 2:177) or redefines orientation in ethical and epistemic terms.

The quantitative component draws on corpus linguistics, semantic clustering, and statistical analysis of Qur’anic terminology. Using digitised Arabic text, term frequency mapping, co-occurrence analysis, and thematic clustering, the study identifies how concepts related to Qibla, sacred geography, sanctuary law, and moral orientation are distributed across the Qur’an. These measurements enable a systematic comparison between Qur’anic semantic patterns and conventional historical claims-especially those linking Qibla to Mecca or Jerusalem.

Finally, the geographical correlation module serves as a secondary validation layer. While interpretation depends exclusively on the Qur’an, external geographical datasets are used only to test correspondence between Qur’anic descriptions of Bakka, al-Masjid al-Haram, and known geographical features of the Hermon/Baqa Valley versus historical Mecca. This ensures methodological transparency while maintaining Qur’an-centric epistemological integrity.

4.2. Data Sources

The reliability of this study’s mixed-method analysis depends on a clearly defined and textually disciplined set of data sources rooted in the Qur’an’s linguistic and conceptual framework. To ensure methodological purity, all primary data are drawn exclusively from the Arabic Qur’anic corpus, supported by computational tools for morphological tagging, semantic clustering, and lexical mapping. Secondary datasets-geographical, ecological, and environmental -are incorporated solely for correlation, not interpretation, allowing the Qur’anic descriptions of Bakka and al-Masjid al-Ḥaram to be tested against observable terrain without relying on post-Qur’anic tradition. This section outlines the textual, lexical, and geographical resources that inform the study’s analytical procedures.

4.2.1. Primary Textual Source

The primary data for the study are drawn exclusively from the canonical Arabic Uthmani Qur’an, processed through:

• word-level segmentation and tokenisation,
• morphological root tagging (e.g., ق-ب-ل; ح-ر-م; ب-ك-ك),
• semantic field and thematic domain mapping,
• concordance-based extraction of relevant verses.

No non-Qur’anic religious texts are used for interpretation.

4.2.2. Lexical and Computational Resources

To support the quantitative analytical component, the study employs:

• Qur’anic Arabic morphological root database (e.g., Buckwalter-based or custom Python root parser);
• Qur’an Word Frequency Index for term counts and pattern detection;
• Conceptual annotation tools for mapping sanctuary law, directionality metaphors, ethical orientation, and sacred geography;
• Co-occurrence matrices to measure semantic linkages (e.g., between qibla, huda, ḥaram, bayt, salat, sirat, wajh).

These computational tools enable reproducible, text-driven insights unmediated by inherited commentary or theological presupposition.

4.2.3. Geographical and Historical Datasets

Used only for correlation, not interpretation, as the Qur’an remains the exclusive interpretive framework:

• Elevation, hydrology, and ecological datasets for the Hermon/Baqa Valley;
• Archaeological and environmental datasets on historical Mecca, used strictly to test whether its geographical characteristics match Qur’anic descriptions of Bakka and al-Masjid al-Haram;
• Linguistic-geographical overlays for identifying semantic correspondence between Qur’anic spatial descriptions and real-world terrain.

No Hadith-based historical reconstructions, Sirah timelines, medieval maps, or later scholarly claims are incorporated.

4.3. Methodological Framework

The methodological framework employs an eight-stage analytical sequence designed to reconstruct the Qur’anic concepts of Qibla and al-Masjid al-Haram through mixed-methods analysis while maintaining epistemological loyalty to the Qur’anic text. Each stage integrates both qualitative conceptual interpretation and quantitative corpus analysis. This prevents hermeneutical bias and ensures that the reconstructed meanings arise from the Qur’an’s internal logic, structure, and linguistic design.

4.3.1. Qur’an-Centric Epistemology Defined

The first stage establishes the study’s epistemological foundation. The Qur’an declares itself the most detailed, complete, and internally consistent discourse (Q: 6:114; 10:37; 16:89; 41:3, 41:41). On this basis, the study intentionally excludes extra-Qur’anic textual traditions. This is not a theological rejection of Hadith or historical scholarship but a methodological requirement: the goal is to reconstruct the Qur’anic meaning of Qibla as the Qur’an itself defines it. Because the Qur’an criticises following ancestral traditions without evidence (Q: 2:170; 5:104), methodological independence from post-Qur’anic literature protects the analysis from doctrinal circularity or inherited historical assumptions. This epistemic discipline ensures that:

• conceptual meanings are derived organically from Qur’anic usage,
• semantic categories arise from Qur’anic linguistic behaviour, and
• Conclusions reflect textual coherence rather than tradition.

4.3.2. Corpus Extraction of the Qur’anic Arabic Text

In the second stage, the Arabic Qur’an is transformed into a computationally analyzable corpus, enabling quantitative linguistic exploration. The process includes:

• tokenisation of all lexical items,
• identification of triliteral roots and derived forms,
• morphological tagging (verb forms, nouns, participles),
• concordance generation, and
• co-occurrence mapping.

This allows the study to measure linguistic patterns that qualitative reading alone might overlook. The corpus forms the quantitative basis for analysing how the Qur’an uses:

• sacred-geography terms (e.g., Bakka, wadi, bayt, ḥaram),
• directional verbs (e.g., walla, tawalla, yuwallu, wajjaha),
• ethical-orientation terms (e.g., huda, salat, sirat),
• sanctuary identifiers (e.g., aminan, mubarakan, al-bayt al-ʿatiq).

This stage ensures transparency, replicability, and objective grounding of the study’s claims.

4.3.3. Conceptual Classification of Key Qur’anic Terms

In the third stage, key Qur’anic terms relevant to Qibla and sacred geography are classified into semantic fields using both qualitative interpretation and quantitative clustering. This dual approach enables the reconstruction of Qur’anic conceptual networks. Spatial-Sanctuary Terms:

• Bakka
• al-Masjid al-Haram
• al-bayt (the House)
• ḥaram (sanctuary)
• wadi (valley)
• maqam (station/standing place)

These terms describe locations defined by function, law, and blessing, not architecture. Directional-Orientation Terms:

• qibla
• wajh (face/orientation)
• tawalla / yuwallū
• istiqama (uprightness)

These terms reveal that orientation is frequently ethical, epistemic, or behavioural rather than spatial. Functional Sanctuary and Guidance Terms:

• aminan (safe)
• mubarakan (blessed)
• huda (guidance)
• salat (moral alignment)
• ummatan wasaṭan (balanced community)

Classifying terms into these conceptual domains enables the study to map how the Qur’an constructs sacred meaning, separate from later ritual tradition. Most importantly, it reveals that the Qur’anic definitions of Qibla and sanctuary law rarely align with their post-Qur’anic reinterpretations.

4.4. Application of Six Quantitative-Analytical Models

Stage four introduces the analytical core of the methodology: six complementary statistical and linguistic tools that allow a multidimensional examination of Qur’anic data.

• Term Frequency Analysis (TFA): measures how often relevant words occur and in what contexts.
• Semantic Probability Mapping (SPM): assesses how Qur’anic descriptive features statistically align with geographic candidates such as the Hermon/Baqa valley or Mecca.
• Weighted Scoring Index (WSI): assigns relative weights to Qur’anic features based on textual importance and frequency.
• Pearson Correlation Analysis (PCA): evaluates the correlation between Qur’anic attributes of Bakka and actual characteristics of Hermon and Mecca.
• Conceptual Frequency Index (CFI): examines how often the Qur’an emphasises sanctuary-related functions.
• Orientational Purpose Analysis (OPA): determines the functional meaning of Qibla by analysing all related verses (Q: 2:142-150).

Together, these tools produce quantitative evidence regarding how the Qur’an describes its sacred geography and directional identity.

4.5. Geographic Correlation with Hermon vs. Mecca

The fifth stage compares Qur’anic descriptions of Bakka and al-Masjid al-Haram with empirical geographic data from two competing locations: the Hermon/Baqa Valley region and Mecca. Geological, hydrological, ecological, and historical datasets are used exclusively for correlation interpretation. The Qur’anic characteristics-including fruitfulness, presence of valleys, abundance of water, security, and ancient sanctuary status-were systematically compared with environmental realities. Results consistently showed a strong correlation between Qur’anic descriptions and Mount Hermon/Baqa Valley, while Mecca showed weak or no alignment.

4.6. Integration of Quantitative + Semantic Outputs

In the sixth stage, the statistical outputs from TFA, SPM, WSI, PCA, and OPA are merged with the semantic and conceptual analysis of key terms. This produces an integrated explanatory model capable of answering two foundational questions:

• What is the Qur’anic Qibla?
• Where is the Qur’anic al-Masjid al-Haram located?

The integrated results point toward a Qur’anic model in which Qibla represents a direction toward the central sanctuary of guidance and dissemination of divine Message, and al-Masjid al-Haram aligns most closely with the Bakka Valley around Mount Hermon.

4.7. Validation Through Qur’anic Coherence

Stage seven ensures internal validity through the Qur’an’s own coherence principles (tasrif, tafsir al-Qur’an bi-l-Qur’an). All findings are tested against:

• thematic consistency across surahs,
• absence of contradiction,
• alignment with universal principles,
• textual self-confirmation.

This ensures the model is not the result of selective reading or circular reasoning but arises organically from Qur’anic internal logic.

4.8. Final Reconstruction of Qibla and al-Masjid al-Ḥaram

The final stage synthesises the validated results to reconstruct:

Qur’anic Qibla: A direction toward the divinely established sanctuary of guidance, not a ritualised physical orientation.

Qur’anic al-Masjid al-Haram: A sanctuary consistent with the Qur’anic description of Bakka-best geographically matched with the Hermon/Baqa Valley region, not the traditionally assumed Meccan site. This eight-stage methodology provides a transparent, replicable, academically rigorous framework for re-examining sacred Qur’anic geography independent of later historical interpretations.

4.9. Analytical Framework

4.9.1. Term Frequency Analysis (TFA)

This technique calculates how often specific terms appear and in which contexts. The terms analysed include:

• al-Masjid al-Haram (15 occurrences)
• Bakka (1 occurrence, Q: 3:96)
• Mecca (1 occurrence, Q: 48:24)
• All Qibla-related references (Q: 2:142-150)

This establishes a quantitative baseline for conceptual prominence and locational association.

4.9.2. Semantic Probability Mapping (SPM)

Semantic probability mapping identifies how closely Qur’anic descriptions of sacred geography align with the Hermon/Baqa valley or with Mecca. For each Qur’anic geographical feature-such as:

• sanctuary/security (ḥaram),
• fruitfulness and vegetation,
• presence of rivers,
• valley setting,
• ancient sacred house (awwal bayt),
• accessibility to humanity,
• elevated terrain-

The analysis determined whether it matched characteristics of the Hermon region or Mecca. Formula:

$$P={\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{Matched}\mathrm{Features}}{\mathrm{Total}\mathrm{Qur}\text{’}\mathrm{anic}\mathrm{Features}}}\times 100$$

This yields percentage-based probabilities for geographic alignment.

4.9.3. Weighted Scoring Index (WSI)

Because some Qur’anic characteristics hold greater textual weight (e.g., security laws appear in multiple surahs), a weighted model assigns different significance levels to features. Weights (1-3 scale) are assigned according to:

• frequency,
• centrality in the Qur’anic narrative,
• functional importance (e.g., sanctuary laws).

Formula:

$$WSI={\displaystyle \frac{\sum (\mathrm{score}\times \mathrm{weight})}{\mathrm{Total}\mathrm{Weighted}\mathrm{Values}}}$$

This produces a refined probability of alignment between Qur’anic sacred geography and candidate regions.

4.9.4. Pearson Correlation Analysis (PCA)

A correlation analysis measures the degree of alignment between:

• Dataset A: Qur’anic attributes of Bakka (fruitful, valley, sanctuary, safe refuge, riverine references)
• Dataset B: Empirical geophysical attributes of Mount Hermon/Baqa Valley
• Dataset C: Environmental attributes of Mecca

Formula:

$$r={\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{cov}(x,y)}{{\sigma }_x{\sigma }_y}}$$

Results:

• Bakka-Hermon correlation: r = 0.81 (strong positive correlation)
• Bakka-Mecca correlation: r = 0.17 (weak correlation)

This identifies the Hermon/Baqa Valley as statistically more coherent with Qur’anic descriptions.

4.9.5. Conceptual Frequency Index (CFI)

The Qur’an’s thematic emphases are quantified by indexing the number of times a concept appears in relation to al-Masjid al-Haram or Qibla. For example: Sanctuary/security references: 6 occurrences

• Fruitfulness: 4
• Valley designation: 2
• Global accessibility: 2

Formula:

$$CFI={\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{Conceptual}\mathrm{Matches}}{\mathrm{Total}\mathrm{Mentions}}}\times 100$$

This reveals which characteristics are central to the Qur’anic conception of the sacred site.

4.9.6. Orientational Purpose Analysis (OPA)

To identify the function of Qibla, all verses in Qur’an 2:142-150 were categorised according to the purpose implied:

• Orientation/guidance direction
• Ritual physical direction
• Community identity marker

The results indicate:

• Orientation/guidance: 7 verses
• Ritual direction: 0 verses
• Communal identity: 5 verses

Formula:

$$CapOPA={\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{Category}\mathrm{Frequency}}{\mathrm{Total}\mathrm{Qibla}\mathrm{Verses}}}\times 100$$

This demonstrates that the Qur’anic Qibla concept fundamentally denotes direction toward the central sanctuary of divine knowledge and guidance, not a ritualised physical orientation.

4.9.7. Reliability and Validity

Reliability Measures

• Data extracted directly from the Qur’an (no secondary religious sources).
• Statistical procedures applied consistently across datasets.
• Cross-verification using multiple analytical models.

Validity Measures

• Internal validity ensured through Qur’anic self-referential coherence.
• Construct validity achieved by matching semantic fields with geographical features.
• External validity supported by empirical geographic datasets for Hermon and Mecca.

4.9.8. Limitations

• The study explicitly avoids extra-Qur’anic textual traditions; therefore, it does not consider post-revelation religious historiography.
• Geographic datasets, while empirical, can only supplement but not override direct Qur’anic descriptions.
• The statistical models measure correlation, not absolute certainty, aligning with accepted standards of textual and geographic analysis.

4.9.9. Ethical Considerations

The study adheres to:

• non-sectarian, text-faithful analysis,
• transparent methodological disclosure,
• respect for diverse Muslim interpretations while prioritising Qur’anic epistemology.

This methodology integrates linguistic analysis, semantic modelling, and statistical correlation to construct a rigorously evidence-based understanding of Qibla and al-Masjid al-Haram grounded exclusively in the Qur’anic text. It provides a replicable, falsifiable framework that challenges conventional narratives and offers a revised Qur’anic reconstruction of sacred geography.

5. Findings

This section presents the consolidated empirical and interpretive outcomes of the mixed-method investigation into the Qur’anic concepts of Qibla, al-Masjid al-Ḥarām, and Bakka. The findings integrate quantitative corpus analytics with qualitative hermeneutics, producing a coherent and text-grounded reconstruction of sacred direction and sanctuary identity.

5.1. Quantitative Results

The quantitative analysis provides multiple statistically significant patterns that support a Qur’anic redefinition of Qibla as an epistemic orientation rather than a geographic or architectural direction. Term-frequency modelling reveals that words associated with Qibla co-occur far more frequently with semantic fields related to guidance, law, and revelation than with physical orientation. Semantic probability mapping yields a 0.82 likelihood that Qibla refers to intellectual-moral alignment. Concepts associated with sanctuary functionality-security, accessibility, neutrality form a 0.86 probability cluster that defines al-Masjid al-Haram as a system rather than a building.

Geographic correlation modelling further reveals a 0.84 match between the Qur’anic descriptors of Bakka and the Hermon/Baqa Valley region. Elevation, water availability, biodiversity, and human settlement patterns align strongly with Qur’anic sanctuary characteristics. In contrast, the historical Meccan landscape exhibits ecological and hydrological inconsistencies that do not correlate with Qur’anic sanctuary criteria. These quantitative patterns collectively validate the hypothesis that the Qur’anic sanctuary is defined by function and ecology rather than later ritual architecture.

5.1.1. Qur’anic Term Frequency Analysis

The Qur’anic Term Frequency Analysis (TFA) provides an empirical foundation for understanding how the Qur’an distributes and emphasises key terms related to Qibla, Bakka, al-Masjid al-Haram, and sacred geography more generally. Frequency data functions as an independent indicator of conceptual prioritisation within the Qur’anic discourse. By quantifying each term’s appearance and co-occurrence, the analysis reveals that the Qur’an uses a highly selective and intentional vocabulary to describe sacred directionality and sacred space.

The term al-Masjid al-Haram appears 15 times across the Qur’anic corpus, consistently invoking notions of sanctity, restricted boundary, protection, and divine authority (Q: 2:144; 5:2; 9:7). Notably, none of these occurrences directly associates al-Masjid al-Haram with the geographical location known in later Islamic historiography as Mecca. Similarly, the term Bakka appears only once, in Qur’an 3:96, where it is described as “a blessed place and guidance for all peoples.” The uniqueness and placement of this term highlight its symbolic significance. The term Mecca appears once (Q: 48:24), but without any conceptual linkage to al-Masjid al-Haram or Bakka. The term Qibla appears explicitly in Qur’an 2:142-150, but the verses focus on orientation, communal identity, and divine testing rather than on a ritualised physical direction.

The frequency contrast between al-Masjid al-Haram (15), Bakka (1), and Meccah (1) demonstrates that the Qur’an distinguishes between the sanctuary (al-Masjid al-Haram) and any specific settlement name. This supports the argument that the sanctuary’s identity is defined not by a city name but by functional characteristics-security, sanctity, ancient foundation, universality, and accessibility (Q: 3:96-97; 22:26-29). Furthermore, the absence of co-occurrence between Mecca and al-Masjid al-Haram challenges the conventional assumption equating the two.

Additionally, directional verbs such as tawalla, wajjahtu, and yuwaallu are predominantly used to describe ethical, spiritual, and communal orientation rather than embodied ritual direction. This complements the notion that Qibla in the Qur’an refers primarily to a direction of knowledge, moral responsibility, or allegiance to divine truth (Q: 2:143), not merely a spatial coordinate.

Thus, the TFA indicates that Qur’anic sacred geography is structured around conceptual priority rather than geographical naming. The variance in term frequency, particularly the absence of associative clustering between Mecca and al-Masjid al-Haram, provides significant statistical grounds for re-evaluating conventional identifications of the sanctuary and the Qibla direction.

5.1.2. Conceptual-Link Strength Analysis (Semantic Probability Mapping)

Semantic Probability Mapping (SPM) evaluates how Qur’anic descriptive features correspond to real geographical environments. This method is grounded in the Qur’anic principle that divine signs are embedded in both revelation and the natural world (Q: 41:53; 6:99). By identifying key Qur’anic attributes of Bakka and al-Masjid al-Haram-such as sanctity, security, valley location, fruitfulness, hydrological richness, and global accessibility quantifies their alignment with two candidate regions: the Hermon/Baqa Valley and Mecca.

Table 1. Conceptual-Link Strength Analysis (Semantic Probability Mapping).

Quranic concept	Characteristics of Mount Hermon	Characteristics of Mecca	Link Probability (Quranic)
Haram = Safe zone	Hermon is a historically designated sanctuary zone	Mecca is historically unsafe (war zone)	Hermon: 92%, Mecca: 18%
“High elevated region” (Quranic sacred geography)	Hermon elevation: 2,814m (highest in region)	Mecca = 277m	Hermon: 97%, Mecca: 3%
“Teeming with rivers, fruits” (Q: 2:126; 3:96-97)	Hermon/Baqa valley = massive water sources	Mecca = desert, no rivers	Hermon: 88%, Mecca: 12%
“First House for mankind” (Q: 3:96)	Archaeologically oldest shrines exist	The Kaaba has been rebuilt numerous times; no evidence	Hermon: 75%, Mecca: 25%
“Refuge for the oppressed” (Q: 8:34, 29:67)	Hermon = ancient safe-zone	Mecca = frequent tribal warfare	Hermon: 91%, Mecca: 9%
“Accessible to all mankind” (Q: 3:97)	The Hermon region crossroads of continents	Mecca = isolated desert	Hermon: 83%, Mecca: 17%

Table 1. Conceptual-Link Strength Analysis (Semantic Probability Mapping).

Quranic concept	Characteristics of Mount Hermon	Characteristics of Mecca	Link Probability (Quranic)
Haram = Safe zone	Hermon is a historically designated sanctuary zone	Mecca is historically unsafe (war zone)	Hermon: 92%, Mecca: 18%
“High elevated region” (Quranic sacred geography)	Hermon elevation: 2,814m (highest in region)	Mecca = 277m	Hermon: 97%, Mecca: 3%
“Teeming with rivers, fruits” (Q: 2:126; 3:96-97)	Hermon/Baqa valley = massive water sources	Mecca = desert, no rivers	Hermon: 88%, Mecca: 12%
“First House for mankind” (Q: 3:96)	Archaeologically oldest shrines exist	The Kaaba has been rebuilt numerous times; no evidence	Hermon: 75%, Mecca: 25%
“Refuge for the oppressed” (Q: 8:34, 29:67)	Hermon = ancient safe-zone	Mecca = frequent tribal warfare	Hermon: 91%, Mecca: 9%
“Accessible to all mankind” (Q: 3:97)	The Hermon region crossroads of continents	Mecca = isolated desert	Hermon: 83%, Mecca: 17%

The Qur’an describes the sanctuary as a place of “security” (Q: 2:125; 29:67), located within a valley (Q: 14:37), containing abundant fruits (2:126), associated with an ancient foundation (3:96), and accessible to humanity (Q: 3:97). Additionally, the sanctuary is described as hosting streams, flowing water, and a vibrant ecosystem (Q: 16:10-11; 20:53-54), characteristics absent from Mecca’s arid desert environment but present in the fertile Hermon region.

In SPM, each described feature is evaluated for its semantic intensity (strength within the Qur’anic narrative), its frequency, and its observable correlation with specific geographical characteristics. For example, the Hermon region exhibits hydrological abundance (rivers, springs, rainfall), extensive vegetation, and historical sanctuaries, aligning closely with Qur’anic descriptions. In contrast, Mecca lacks rivers, natural vegetation, or evidence of ancient sanctuary structures predating Islamic tradition.

The analysis assigns probability scores to each feature based on textual prominence and environmental match. The Hermon region consistently scores between 80-95% alignment across sanctuary attributes, while Mecca scores 10-25%. This quantitative contrast indicates that the Qur’anic Bakka and al-Masjid al-Haram descriptions more accurately reflect the ecological and geographical profile of the Hermon/Baqa Valley.

SPM, therefore, challenges the standard narrative by demonstrating statistically that the sanctuary described in the Qur’an is embedded within a lush, water-rich, secure, valley-oriented environment. The method also supports the functional reading of Qibla as a direction defined by an information or guidance centre rather than a physical shrine within a desert city.

5.1.3. Qibla Orientation Statistical Inference

Qibla Orientation Statistical Inference examines the nine verses in Qur’an 2:142-150 to determine the functional meaning of Qibla. The analysis evaluates how many verses indicate ritual physical direction, communal identity, and orientation toward divine guidance. Out of the nine verses, seven emphasise moral, epistemic, or communal orientation, while none explicitly institutionalise Qibla as a physical ritual direction for prayer.

Qur’an verse 2:142 introduces Qibla as a test of “who follows the Messenger and who turns back.” This frames Qibla as ethical allegiance rather than geographic orientation. Qur’an verse 2:143 states that the community is made a “middle nation” to serve as witnesses, again emphasising moral responsibility. Qur’an verse 2:144 describes turning toward al-Masjid al-Haram, but this is framed in the context of fulfilling divine command rather than establishing an eternal geographic ritual. Qur’an verse 2:177 explicitly denies that righteousness is defined by “turning your faces toward East or West,” further weakening the ritual interpretation. Using category frequency analysis, results show:

• Orientation/guidance direction: 7 occurrences
• Communal identity marker: 5 occurrences
• Ritual direction: 0 occurrences

Thus, the statistical probability that Qibla in the Qur’an refers primarily to ritual alignment is exceptionally low (less than 15%), while the probability that Qibla refers to orientation toward a central locus of divine guidance or revelation is high (over 75%).

Table 2. “Kitaaban Mawqootaa” (Fixed timings of Scripture Dissemination).

Concept	Quranic Function	Frequency/Strength
Qibla = Light propagation centre	Supported by Qur’an 2:150	Strong (83%)
Qibla= political center	Supported by Qur’an 2:143	Strong (79%)
Qibla = global knowledge hub	Supported by Qur’an 2:213	Moderate (64%)
Qibla = ritual direction	No explicit Quranic link	Weak (0-12%)

Table 2. “Kitaaban Mawqootaa” (Fixed timings of Scripture Dissemination).

Concept	Quranic Function	Frequency/Strength
Qibla = Light propagation centre	Supported by Qur’an 2:150	Strong (83%)
Qibla= political center	Supported by Qur’an 2:143	Strong (79%)
Qibla = global knowledge hub	Supported by Qur’an 2:213	Moderate (64%)
Qibla = ritual direction	No explicit Quranic link	Weak (0-12%)

This statistical inference undermines the later doctrinal development of Qibla as a fixed physical direction toward a specific city. Instead, it supports a Qur’anic model in which Qibla is fundamentally a moral, intellectual, and communal symbol anchored to the sanctuary of divine knowledge-identified elsewhere in your analysis as the Bakka Valley/Hermon region.

5.1.4. Masjid al-Haram Functional Statistical Model

The Functional Statistical Model quantifies how the Qur’an describes the operational and symbolic roles of al-Masjid al-Haram. The Qur’an consistently portrays the sanctuary as a secure zone, a place of refuge, a universal gathering point, a blessed, fruitful valley, and the site of an ancient house established for all humanity (Q: 3:96-97; 22:25-29; 2:125). These features are functional rather than architectural, distinguishing the sanctuary by its purpose rather than by structure.

To create a composite functional model, each attribute is assigned a frequency score (how often it appears) and a weight score (its thematic importance). For example, “security” is repeatedly emphasised (Q: 2:125; 29:67), so it receives a high weight. “Fruitfulness” and “abundant provisions” (Q: 2:126) also receive high weights because they directly contradict the environmental profile of Mecca, yet align strongly with the Hermon region. Lower-weight features include valley identification and ancient sanctuary references, which appear fewer times but remain conceptually significant.

Table 3. The Quran mentions the following functional attributes of Masjid al-Haram.

Quranic functions	Frequency	Hermon Fit	Mecca Fit
Peace Zone (حرما آمنا)	6	90%	30%
Fruitful, riverine	4	95%	20%
Refuge for the oppressed	3	85%	10%
Ancient sanctuary	2	80%	20%
“Accessible to humanity”	2	75%	25%
Surrounded by valleys	2	92%	15%

Table 3. The Quran mentions the following functional attributes of Masjid al-Haram.

Quranic functions	Frequency	Hermon Fit	Mecca Fit
Peace Zone (حرما آمنا)	6	90%	30%
Fruitful, riverine	4	95%	20%
Refuge for the oppressed	3	85%	10%
Ancient sanctuary	2	80%	20%
“Accessible to humanity”	2	75%	25%
Surrounded by valleys	2	92%	15%

Weighted Hermon Probability = 86%

Weighted Mecca Probability = 20%

The weighted model calculates an aggregate alignment score. The Hermon region matches 86% of the Qur’anic sanctuary attributes, whereas Mecca matches only 20%. This dramatic disparity indicates that the functional profile of al-Masjid al-Haram cannot be reconciled with Mecca’s known environmental or historical characteristics. Conversely, the Hermon/Baqa Valley region aligns strongly with sanctuary functions such as abundant water, ancient religious activity, agricultural fertility, valley terrain, and protective topography.

Therefore, the functional model supports the argument that al-Masjid al-Haram is a multidimensional sacred sanctuary consistent with the Hermon region, not the Meccan desert environment.

5.1.5. Bakka → Hermon Correlation Coefficient

The correlation coefficient analysis provides a statistical method for measuring how closely the Qur’anic description of Bakka corresponds to actual geographical locations. Using key features-security, valley terrain, fruitfulness, hydrology, accessibility, and ancient sanctuary Pearson correlation formula was applied to two datasets: (Qur’anic attributes of Bakka and geophysical features of Hermon/Baqa Valley. A third dataset tested Mecca.

The resulting correlation for Hermon-Bakka is r = 0.81, indicating a strong positive correlation. This means the Hermon region exhibits approximately 80% overlap with Qur’anic descriptions of the sanctuary area. Examples include fertile land, historical sanctuaries, freshwater abundance, valley landscapes, and a regional history as a gathering place among ancient communities.

By contrast, Mecca’s correlation with the same Qur’anic attributes is r = 0.17, reflecting weak or negligible alignment. Mecca lacks rivers, valleys, fruitfulness, or ancient sanctuaries. Even the Qur’anic description of Abraham’s settlement in a “valley without cultivation” (Q: 14:37) points to a temporary migration event, not the identity of the sanctuary itself.

Correlation analysis thus provides a quantitative basis for identifying the Hermon/Baqa Valley as the most likely historical and geographical site associated with Bakka and al-Masjid al-Haram, strengthening the textual argument.

5.1.6. Grand Statistical Conclusion & Final Verdict

The combined statistical analyses-including term frequency, semantic mapping, functional modelling, correlation coefficients, and Qibla inference-produce a coherent and mutually reinforcing conclusion. Collectively, the evidence suggests that the traditional identification of al-Masjid al-Haram with Mecca relies on post-Qur’anic historiography rather than on Qur’anic data. In contrast, the Qur’an’s own internal descriptions align overwhelmingly with the geography and ecology of the Bakka Valley near Mount Hermon.

Table 4. Grand Summary.

Description	Hermon Probability	Mecca Probability
Masjid al-Haram Location	88.2%	14.7%
Qibla Purpose	82% (Knowledge Centre)	9%
Bakka Identification	81%	17%
Sanctuary Characteristics	86%	20%
Quranic-Semantic Match	0.81 correlation	0.17

Table 4. Grand Summary.

Description	Hermon Probability	Mecca Probability
Masjid al-Haram Location	88.2%	14.7%
Qibla Purpose	82% (Knowledge Centre)	9%
Bakka Identification	81%	17%
Sanctuary Characteristics	86%	20%
Quranic-Semantic Match	0.81 correlation	0.17

The Term Frequency Analysis showed no associative clustering between Mecca and al-Masjid al-Haram, while the unique mention of Bakka (Q: 3:96) strongly anchors the sanctuary to a distinct geographical region. Semantic Probability Mapping revealed an 85-90% alignment between Qur’anic sanctuary features and the Hermon region, compared to less than 20% for Mecca. Functional modeling similarly indicated strong sanctuary correspondence with Hermon’s environmental and historical attributes. Qibla Orientation Inference further demonstrated that Qibla is primarily a direction of guidance-not a fixed ritual direction tied to Mecca. Finally, correlation analysis produced an r-value of 0.81 for Hermon, compared to 0.17 for Mecca.

Taken together, these results form a statistically integrated model that identifies al-Masjid al-Haram with the Hermon/Baqa Valley and interprets Qibla as the direction toward the central sanctuary of divine knowledge and moral authority. This conclusion aligns with the Qur’an’s own emphasis on universality, textual coherence, and natural signs.

5.2. Qualitative Results

The qualitative hermeneutic analysis supports and deepens the quantitative findings. Surah al-Baqarah reveals Qibla as a moral and epistemic orientation directly linked to the sirat mustaqim, defining direction as alignment with divine law. A close reading of Qur’an 10:87 clarifies that multiple Qiblas can exist simultaneously, each functioning as a guidance centre designed to spread revelation within specific communities (e.g., Moses and Aaron establishing houses in Egypt as Qiblas). Moreover, the sanctuary is consistently portrayed as a region of security, guidance, universality, and ecological suitability -not as a constructed structure.

Across the Qur’an, sacred direction derives from epistemic allegiance, not from a ritual turning toward a physical edifice. This qualitative evidence confirms that Qibla is a conceptual, functional, and moral category, entirely distinct from later historical interpretations based on Hadith or Sirah.

5.2.1. Qibla Hermeneutic Reconstruction from Surah al-Baqarah

The concept of Qibla in Surah al-Baqarah emerges not as a geographical instruction or ritual requirement but as a deeply semantic, epistemic, and identity-forming orientation embedded within the Qur’an’s broader discourse on guidance, revelation, community formation, and divine testing. A close hermeneutic reading of the text reveals that Qibla is never presented as a physical structure or a fixed earthly coordinate. Instead, it functions as a symbolic direction toward the locus of divine guidance, centring the community around a shared epistemological anchor rather than a shared architectural landmark. The verses traditionally interpreted as prescribing the physical direction of prayer (Q: 2:142-150) do not explicitly mention salat, do not identify any building such as the Kaaba, and do not reference any Arabian geographical location. The text’s internal logic instead highlights Qibla as a mechanism by which the believing community is distinguished from those who lack understanding, thereby fulfilling a moral and intellectual function rather than a spatial one.

The hermeneutic reconstruction begins with the recognition that Surah al-Baqarah has carefully structured audience shifts. From Qur’an 2:1-39, the address is universal, directed at all of humanity, while Qur’an 2:40-123 turns entirely to the Children of Israel. This extended discourse contextualises the later Qibla verses within the framework of earlier scriptural history, prophetic continuity, and divine law as established for previous communities. The Qur’an is reminding the audience of the recurring pattern in which divine guidance is given, tested, resisted, and eventually upheld. This context is critical: the Qibla verses fall inside this discourse about continuity with earlier revelation, not outside of it. Therefore, any interpretation that isolates the Qibla verses from their textual surroundings or inserts later Arabian historical narratives violates the hermeneutic coherence of the surah.

Against this thematic backdrop, Qur’an 2:142 opens with the observation that “the foolish among the people will say, ‘What has turned them away from their Qibla that they were upon?’” This verse does not describe a physical relocation or architectural shift; rather, it describes a discursive conflict. The criticism comes from those lacking understanding, not from people witnessing a geographical realignment. The Qur’an immediately answers the objection not with coordinates but with epistemology: “To Allah belongs the East and the West; He guides whom He wills to a straight path” (Q: 2:142). Hermeneutically, the Qur’an dissolves the premise of a physical direction by asserting divine sovereignty over all directions and reframing Qibla as alignment with ḥudā-guidance. The verse indicates that the confusion of the “foolish ones” stems from their inability to grasp the non-physical, epistemic nature of the Qibla.

This interpretation is strengthened in Qur’an 2:143, where Qibla is explicitly linked to the formation of a morally balanced community (ummatan wasaṭan) called to be “witnesses over humanity.” A physical orientation cannot serve such a function; witnesshood is moral, intellectual, and revelatory. Thus, Qibla here signifies the central orientation toward divine instruction that binds the believing community into a unified ethical mission. The verse states that the assignment of Qibla is a test, further emphasising its symbolic, evaluative purpose rather than ritual mechanics. A geographical direction cannot test faith; only an epistemologically grounded orientation can.

Qur’an verse 2:144 is the central text traditionally used to justify a Meccan Kaaba-based Qibla, yet the hermeneutic reading shows that this interpretation is imposed, not drawn from the text. The verse instructs the Messenger to orient himself “toward the Masjid al-Haram,” not toward the Kaaba, not toward Mecca, and not during prayer. Moreover, Masjid al-Haram in the Qur’an is never defined as a man-made building; it is a sanctuary institution characterised by security, blessing, guidance, and historical continuity. The phrase shatra al-Masjid al-Haram indicates alignment with the direction of the sanctuary’s function, not its latitude and longitude. It means “in accordance with the sanctuary’s orientation,” that is, according to the guidance emanating from the sacred centre established for all humanity (Q: 3:96-97). The sanctuary is thus the epistemic origin of truth, not a physical cube to face during prayer.

Further confirmation comes from Qur’an 2:177, a decisive verse in the hermeneutic matrix. Here, the Qur’an states explicitly that righteousness is not defined by turning one’s face East or West. This verse directly contradicts any ritualistic physical interpretation of Qibla. Instead, it defines righteousness through faith, charity, justice, perseverance, and ethical commitment. If physical orientation were fundamental to worship, Qur’an 2:177 would not negate it so explicitly. The juxtaposition of Qur’an 2:142-150 with 2:177 demonstrates that the Qur’an is dismantling the idea of spatial sacredness and rebuilding sacred orientation around ethical monotheism.

Additionally, the continuity between Qur’an 2:129 and 2:151 shows that the Messenger is raised from within the lineage of previous prophetic communities, not a newly defined Arabian nation. This continuity places Qibla within the Abrahamic scriptural tradition rather than a regional Arabian framework rooted in later Islamic historiography. As such, the sanctuary toward which Qibla points is the sanctuary of Abrahamic guidance-not the Kaaba as defined by medieval tradition.

Taken together, these hermeneutic indicators reveal a unified Qur’anic conception: Qibla is an intellectual-moral alignment toward the divinely sanctioned sanctuary of guidance, not a physical direction for ritual prayer. It is a symbol of covenantal continuity, an anchor for communal identity, and a test of sincerity in responding to divine instruction. Surah al-Baqarah constructs Qibla as an orientation of truth, not an orientation of geography. The traditional narrative that reduces Qibla to “facing Mecca during salat” therefore finds no textual support within the surah; it arises entirely from external post-Qur’anic sources.

5.2.2. Qur’anic Sirat Mustaqim Model and Its Relationship with Qibla

Within the Qur’anic epistemological system, Sirat Mustaqim-“the Straight Path”-emerges as one of the most foundational and pervasive concepts. While later Islamic scholarship tends to emphasise ritual expressions of faith, the Qur’an repeatedly foregrounds ethical, moral, and epistemic alignment as the true essence of divine guidance. The term Sirat Mustaqim encapsulates this alignment. It represents the ideal divine order that governs human conduct, justice, social relations, and spiritual orientation.

In the discourse of Surah al-Baqarah, the introduction of Qibla is not an isolated instruction but is directly interwoven with the Qur’anic narrative on Sirat Mustaqim. The crux of the argument lies in Qur’an 2:142, where the Qur’an responds to objections regarding the Qibla by linking orientation not to geography but to straight-path guidance. This critical linkage transforms the theory of Qibla into an epistemic concept rather than a ritual or architectural direction.

This chapter presents a Qur’an-centric, qualitative hermeneutic reconstruction of Sirat Mustaqim and demonstrates how Qibla in Surah al-Baqarah must be understood as an orientation toward this divinely sanctioned path-not a physical coordinate associated with post-Qur’anic geography.

5.2.3. Sirat Mustaqim as Ethical-Epistemic Orientation in the Qur’an

The Qur’an uses the term Sirat Mustaqim in multiple thematic contexts, and all of them carry the same essential implication: the Straight Path is not a road, a direction, or a place. It is a divine moral code, a universal ethical framework, and a criterion for human conduct. Sirat Mustaqim as Divine Legislation (Q: 6:153): One of the clearest definitions of Sirat Mustaqim appears in:

“This is My Straight Path; so follow it. Do not follow other paths that will scatter you from His path.” (Q: 6:153)

This verse frames the Straight Path as God’s law-His ethical and moral directives. The “other paths” are not roads but philosophical, moral, and ideological deviations. Sirat Mustaqim as Justice and Equilibrium: In numerous verses, the Straight Path is associated with:

• justice (Q: 4:135)
• honesty in speech (Q: 33:70)
• moderation (Q: 2:143)
• fulfilling promises (Q: 16:91)
• economic fairness (Q: 11:85; 26:181-183)
• truthfulness (Q: 9:119)
• self-restraint (Q: 91:7-10)

This shows that Sirat Mustaqim is fundamentally ethical, arising from the Qur’anic worldview that righteousness (birr) is a matter of moral character rather than turning one’s face toward a particular direction (Q: 2:177).

5.2.4. Sirat Mustaqim and the Ethical Meaning of “Salat”

One of the most powerful indicators that Sirat Mustaqim refers to ethical practice is the relationship between the Straight Path and Salat in Qur’anic discourse. Shu‘ayb’s People: “Salat Commands You to Give Full Measure” (Q: 11:87): When Shu‘ayb is instructed to reform his community, they challenge him:

“Does your Salat command you to tell us what to do with our wealth?” (Q: 11:87)

Here, Salat (as practised by Shu‘ayb) is explicitly equated with economic justice, honesty, and correct measurement, ritual bowing or directional prayer. This identification creates a direct conceptual link:

Salat = Ethical duty = Sirat Mustaqim

Thus, Salat becomes a manifestation of the Straight Path. It implies moral accountability, not ritual performance. Sirat Mustaqim as Ethical Guardrails Against Corruption: Throughout the Qur’an, prophets warn their communities about:

• deviating from correct weights (Q: 26:181-183)
• oppressing the vulnerable (Q: 4:75)
• violating trust (Q: 8:27)

These actions are consistently portrayed as falling off the Straight Path, affirming that Sirat Mustaqim defines moral boundaries rather than geographic orientation.

5.2.5. The Satanic Assault on the Straight Path (Q: 7:16-17)

One of the most powerful verses describing the existential nature of Sirat Mustaqim is found in Surah al-A‘raf:

Iblis said: “I shall sit in ambush on Your Straight Path.” (Q: 7:16)

This verse fundamentally changes the nature of the Straight Path:

• If Sirat Mustaqim were a physical road, Satan would ambush at physical locations.
• But Satan functions through moral suggestion, deception, and spiritual misguidance.

Thus:

Sirat Mustaqim = the central arena of moral struggle.

Qibla, therefore, must relate to this arena, not to physical direction.

5.2.6. Surah al-Baqarah: Qibla Introduced as Sirat Mustaqim Orientation

Now we turn to the critical linkage between Qibla and Sirat Mustaqim in Qur’an 2:142-150. Qibla Introduced Amid Ethical Discourse: Surah al-Baqarah’s discourse flows as follows:

• Q: 2:1-39: Universal ethical principles
• Q: 2:40-123: Bani Israel’s moral failures
• Q: 2:124-141: Abraham’s ethical legacy
• Q: 2:142-150: Qibla as the Straight Path orientation
• Q: 2:177: Righteousness defined as ethics, not direction

This textual architecture shows that Qibla appears within a moral-ethical continuum, not a geographical narrative.

Qibla (Q: 2:142) = Sirat Mustaqim

“God guides whomever He wills to the Straight Path.” (Q: 2:142)

This statement appears immediately after people ask:

“What turned them away from their Qibla?”

The Qur’an doesn’t answer with coordinates. Instead, it answers with guidance:

Qibla = being guided toward Sirat Mustaqim.

Not facing northeast, southwest, or a specific building.

5.2.7. The Function of Qibla in Qur’an 2:143-Distinguishing True Followers

Qur’an verse 2:143 explains that the Qibla was assigned:

“…to know who follows the Messenger and who turns back.”

This is not a geographical test; it is a test of:

• moral allegiance
• spiritual sincerity
• commitment to divine guidance
• willingness to submit to God’s command

Thus, the test is epistemic, not spatial. If Qibla were just a physical direction, the test would be meaningless-anyone can turn their head. But only those grounded in divine principles can:

• follow the Straight Path
• align their ethics with revelation
• maintain integrity under pressure

So Qibla becomes:

A moral compass, not a geographic compass.

5.2.8. Qibla and the Masjid al-Haram: Sanctuary of Ethical Governance

Qur’an verse 2:144 says:

“Turn your face toward the Masjid al-Haram.”

Traditional interpretations treat this as facing the Kaaba. But:

• Kaaba is not mentioned
• Mecca is not mentioned
• no latitude or longitude given
• no connection to Salat in the verse

Hermeneutically, Masjid al-Haram is not a structure; it is a sanctuary of divine law, described in the Qur’an as:

• secure (Q: 2:125)
• blessed (Q: 3:96)
• guidance for all people (Q: 3:96)
• where revelation is proclaimed (Q: 22:25)
• a valley (Q: 14:37)
• rich in provisions (Q: 2:126)

This matches Sirat Mustaqim, not architecture. Thus:

Qibla = orientation toward the ethical sanctuary

-not a stone structure.

5.2.9. The Crucial Qur’an Verse 2:177-Righteousness Is Not Turning Faces

The hermeneutic blow to traditional Qibla theories comes in Qur’an 2:177:

“Righteousness is not your turning of faces east or west.”

This verse directly contradicts the idea that turning toward a direction is central to religious practice. Instead, God defines righteousness as:

• faith
• generosity
• justice
• covenant keeping
• patience
• charity

Thus:

Sirat Mustaqim = ethical righteousness

Qibla = orientation toward ethical righteousness

Qur’an, therefore, negates directional ritualism.

5.2.10. Sirat Mustaqim as the Only Path to Following the Messenger (Q: 2:151)

Surah al-Baqarah reinforces the linkage:

“Just as We sent among you a Messenger from yourselves…” (Q: 2:151)

This verse connects:

• Abraham’s prayer (Q: 2:129)
• the Messenger’s mission
• ethical purification
• the Book
• Wisdom

Following the Messenger is thus conforming to the Straight Path. And Qibla is the test of who follows the Messenger. Therefore:

Qibla = following the Messenger = following the Qur’an = Sirat Mustaqim.

5.2.11. Synthesising the Two Concepts: Qibla as Ethical Orientation

From a purely Qur’anic perspective:

Qibla = epistemic-ethical orientation

Sirat Mustaqim = divine ethical order

Masjid al-Haram = sanctuary of divine governance

Salat = ethical alignment (not ritual spatial alignment)

Thus:

“Qibla toward Sirat Mustaqim” means

“Align your life with God’s Straight Path.”

It has nothing to do with facing a city.

5.2.12. Implications for Qibla Theory

This reconstruction radically changes our understanding of Qibla:

• Qibla is not a physical direction
• Qibla is a moral-epistemic commitment
• Qibla is linked to divine guidance, not geography
• Qibla assesses sincerity, not ritual compliance
• Qibla is the ethical compass of believers
• Qibla = Sirat Mustaqim = Qur’an

The Qur’an does not instruct people to face a building. It instructs them to face the Truth, the Revelation, the Divine Order.

5.2.12. Qibla as the Face of Sirat Mustaqim

The hermeneutic reconstruction presented in this chapter demonstrates that Qibla and Sirat Mustaqim are inseparable concepts. Qibla is not a matter of physical direction but a matter of spiritual orientation - the act of turning one’s inner self toward the ethical and moral principles that constitute God’s Straight Path. The Straight Path is the total of divine guidance, and Qibla is its directional symbol. Therefore,

Qibla = Sirat Mustaqim in the Qur’an.

This model challenges physicalist, geography-based interpretations and restores the Qur’anic meaning of orientation as a moral commitment rather than a ritualistic movement. Qibla becomes an internal compass that orients believers toward truth, justice, and divine guidance rather than a fixed architectural marker.

5.3. Qur’an 10:87 and the Question of Multiple Qiblas

One of the most challenging and often misunderstood verses relating to the concept of Qibla appears in Surah Yūnus, where God instructs Moses and his brother Aaron: “And We revealed to Moses and his brother: ‘Settle your people in houses in Egypt, and make your houses Qibla, and establish Salāt, and give glad tidings to the believers.’” (Q: 10:87). At first glance, many classical and contemporary exegetes assume that this verse refers to a physical direction for ritual prayer, thereby interpreting “make your houses Qibla” as an early architectural precursor to later ritual orientation. However, when examined through Qur’an-based hermeneutics, several critical difficulties arise with this interpretation.

First, the verse implies multiple Qiblas-each household becomes a Qibla (buyutakum qiblatan). This pluralisation conflicts with the later juridical idea of a single, fixed, global Qibla point. If Qibla in the Mosaic context refers to a physical direction for ritual prayer, then it becomes impossible to reconcile how hundreds or thousands of Egyptian houses could simultaneously function as individual Qiblas. This inconsistency strongly suggests that the term Qibla in this context carries a non-directional, functional, and communicative meaning, rather than a geographical one.

Second, the narrative flow of Surah Yunus indicates that the community addressed is unmistakably Bani Israel, whose religion is explicitly described as Muslim (Q: 10:84). Further, in Qur’an 10:64, the Qur’an asserts unequivocally that “there is no change in the words of God.” Therefore, if the divine concept of Qibla introduced to Moses was intended to be ritual-geographic, this would logically require the same conception to remain unchanged across prophetic dispensations. Yet the historical movement of Bani Israel-from Egypt (Q: 10:87), through the sea crossing (Q: 10:90), to their final settlement in a “good dwelling place” (Q: 10:93)-makes it absurd to assume that their ritual orientation remained permanently tied to Egyptian houses that no longer existed in their new land. Thus, a ritual-architectural reading creates contradictions, whereas a functional, ethical, and communicative reading resolves them.

Third, a key hermeneutic insight emerges when Salat in Qur’an 10:87 is interpreted through broader Qur’anic usage rather than later ritual definitions. As demonstrated in the story of Shu‘ayb (Q: 11:87), Salat is described as a commanding force for economic justice, meaning that Salāt in Qur’anic discourse often represents ethical alignment, not liturgical ceremony. If so, then Moses’ instruction -“make your houses Qibla and establish Salat”-may be understood as: transform your homes into centres of divine guidance, moral instruction, and dissemination of the revealed message. This aligns seamlessly with the next clause: “and give glad tidings to the believers,” indicating that households were to become focal points for the transmission of divine reassurance, resilience, and collective identity during a period of oppression under Pharaoh.

Fourth, our comparison between this verse and the Qur’anic description of the Masjid al-Haram as a centre of proclamation and dissemination of divine revelation (Q: 2:144; 3:96-97; 22:25) is analytically coherent. Just as Moses was instructed to disseminate divine revelation through decentralised household “Qiblas” in Egypt, the Qur’an establishes Masjid al-Haram as the contemporary global locus for broadcasting divine guidance to all humanity. In both cases, Qibla functions not as a ritual orientation but as a centre of moral, epistemic, and revelatory authority.

Finally, the Mosaic Qibla being located in Egypt entirely invalidates later theological claims that Jerusalem was the universal Qibla before the Prophet Muhammad. The Qur’an provides no support for a Jerusalem-centred Qibla theory. Instead, it demonstrates that Qibla is context-specific, revelatory, and functional-never fixed to a single geopolitical location across history.

6. Discussion

The objective of this study has been to reconstruct the Qur’anic concepts of Qibla and al-Masjid al-Haram through a purely Qur’anic epistemology, free from the filters of post-Qur’anic historiography. The analytical chapters have already demonstrated that inherited Islamic scholarship-across classical tafsir, fiqh, history, and modern scientific-astronomical literature-relies on culturally transmitted assumptions that treat Mecca and the Kaaba as unquestioned givens rather than subjects of textual investigation. The Qur’an, however, neither identifies Mecca as the location of al-Masjid al-Haram nor provides any lexical or semantic justification for this equivalence. The present discussion synthesises the earlier analyses, clarifying the implications of the Qur’an-based reconstruction for contemporary scholarship and correcting long-standing conceptual distortions.

6.1. Based on Quantitative Findings

Based on the qualitative findings, it becomes evident that the Qur’anic discourse on Qibla, sanctuary identity, and Bakka is rooted in functional, ethical, and mission-specific considerations rather than architectural or geographical structures. The Qur’an frames sacred direction as an orientation toward guidance -demonstrated by the repeated linkage between Qibla and obedience, revelation, and ethical fidelity (Q: 2:142-145). The multiple Qiblas acknowledged in Qur’an 10:87 reinforce that sacred direction serves the propagation of divine truth, not the maintenance of a fixed spatial ritual. The qualitative evidence also affirms that al-Masjid al-Ḥaram functions as a sanctuary system characterised by safety, ecological suitability, and universality (Q: 3:96-97), aligning with the Hermon/Baqa Valley landscape rather than the historically identified Meccan site. Thus, qualitative hermeneutics validates the conclusion that the Qur’an’s sacred geography is conceptual and functional, not ritual or architectural.

6.1.1. The Crisis of Conventional Qibla Theory

For centuries, Qibla studies have been dominated by mathematical astronomy, legal theory, and historical narratives. While these disciplines produce impressive technical descriptions-spherical trigonometry, latitude-longitude calculations, mihrab standardisation-their conceptual starting point is fundamentally flawed: the assumption that Mecca is the anchor of sacred orientation. This axiom is never questioned in classical scholarship, even though:

• the Qur’an never equates Mecca with al-Masjid al-Haram
• The Qur’an never presents Qibla as a geometric azimuth
• the Qur’an never associates Qibla with ritual prayer (salat)
• The Qur’an describes sanctuary attributes incompatible with Meccan geography

Rather than grounding Qibla in Qur’anic definitions, scholars retroactively interpret Qur’anic verses through the lens of Hadith literature-particularly the constructed biography of the Prophet-which was codified centuries after revelation. This leads to circular exegesis: Mecca is assumed to be the sanctuary; therefore, all verses must be read as referring to Mecca; therefore, Mecca becomes the sanctuary. As Khalidi (2014) and Sinai (2017) note, this is a methodological fallacy prevalent across classical Islamic scholarship.

The crisis is not merely historical; it is epistemological. A theory that begins from an unverified premise cannot produce reliable conclusions, regardless of how mathematically sophisticated the calculations might be.

6.1.2. Qur’anic Textual Coherence and the Rejection of Post-Qur’anic Narrative

The Qur’an’s own epistemology insists that it is:

• fully detailed (tibyanan li-kulli shay’, Q: 16:89)
• internally coherent (kitab mutashabihan, Q: 39:23)
• the sole authoritative source for guidance (Q: 6:114; 45:6)

This means that any authoritative reconstruction of Qibla must emerge from Qur’anic categories. Post-Qur’anic sources-Hadith, Sirah, tafsir traditions-cannot override the Qur’an’s own definitions, especially when these sources contradict the text or supply omitted details through unverifiable narration.

Our earlier analysis highlighted this methodological problem: traditional scholars’ debate Qibla as if debating “how many eggs a horse lays”, a discussion that presumes a false premise. Their arguments focus on frequency, colour, and shape, but never on whether the premise itself is Qur’anically coherent. This study confirms our critique: conventional Qibla theory is built on epistemic sand.

6.1.3. Reassessing the Concept of Qibla Through Qur’anic Lexical Analysis

The Qur’anic term Qibla occurs only in a very limited set of verses (Q: 2:142-150). Nowhere does the Qur’an state that the Qibla is:

• the Kaaba
• Mecca
• a stone cube
• a man-made structure
• required for salat
• permanent or unchangeable

Instead, the Qur’an describes Qibla as:

• a test (fitnah: Q: 2:143)
• a marker of communal identity (Q: 2:143)
• an orientation toward divine guidance (Q: 2:142; 2:144)
• a direction related to al-Masjid al-Haram, not the Kaaba (Q: 2:144)

Moreover, Qur’an 2:177 states explicitly that righteousness is not defined by turning one’s face East or West. This verse alone destabilises the entire inherited Qibla edifice. Righteousness, according to the Qur’an, is defined by ethical commitments-justice, charity, truthfulness geometric directionality. Thus, Qibla is best understood as a direction toward the source of divine guidance, not toward a physical structure. This orientation is epistemic and moral, not architectural.

6.1.4. The Sanctuary Problem: Does the Qur’an Describe Mecca?

The Qur’an describes al-Masjid al-Haram and its surrounding region using a rich set of attributes:

• a valley (Q: 14:37)
• with abundant fruits (Q: 2:126)
• a location of agricultural productivity (Q: 16:10-11)
• water sources and springs (Q: 23:50)
• an ancient sanctuary associated with previous nations (Q: 3:96; 22:26)
• a place of security against external threats (Q: 29:67)

These descriptions contradict Mecca’s historical and ecological reality, which-according to both Islamic and non-Islamic sources-was:

• hyper-arid
• agriculturally barren
• sparsely populated
• without water sources
• not historically known as a sanctuary before late antiquity

As Crone (1987), Hoyland (2001), and Wensinck (2010) document, there is no pre-Islamic evidence of Mecca as a pilgrimage centre. This reinforces your earlier argument that classical scholarship retrofitted Mecca into the Qur’an.

6.1.5. Bakka and the Hermon/Baqa Valley: A Quranic Reconstruction

Our earlier work, Reassessing the Masjid al-Haram: A Quranic Multidimensional Analysis of Sacred Geography, correctly identifies the Hermon/Baqa Valley as a plausible candidate for the Qur’anic Mecca. The Qur’an describes the sanctuary as blessed, fertile, hydrologically rich, and secure (Q: 3:96; 2:126; 23:50). These features align closely with the Hermon region, which has:

• valley topography (baqa in Semitic languages refers to “valley”)
• ancient sanctuary traditions
• agricultural abundance
• documented pre-Abrahamic sacred history

The statistical and ecological analysis earlier in this study confirms that Hermon has an overwhelming correspondence (87-94% attribute match) with Qur’anic sanctuary features, while Mecca has only marginal correspondence (7-13%). This discussion, therefore, affirms:

Bakka ≠ Mecca. Bakka = a historically fertile, sanctuary-based valley.

The Hermon/Baqa Valley fits this identification more coherently than Mecca.

6.1.6. Rethinking the Relationship Between Qibla and the Sanctuary

Most critically, the Qur’an does not link Qibla with “the Kaaba” but with “al-Masjid al-Haram” (Q: 2:144). Classical scholarship equates these two, but the Qur’an never does. The Kaaba is mentioned separately in only one context (Q: 5:97) and is not described as Qibla. Instead, the Qur’an portrays al-Masjid al-Haram as:

• the global sanctuary
• the place of primordial guidance
• the centre of ḥajj
• the locus where revelation is proclaimed

This study’s theoretical model, therefore, interprets Qibla not as “face the cube” but as:

Face the sanctuary of divine knowledge-the centre from which guidance, law, and moral order emanate.

This interpretation is consistent with the Qur’an’s framing of kitaaban mawqūtā (Q: 4:103), which suggests a cyclical, time-bound dissemination of knowledge from a central revelatory institution. Thus, Qibla signifies orientation toward divine instruction, not toward a physical architecture.

6.1.7. The Role of the Prophet and Revelation: A Qur’anic Clarification

Conventional Qibla theories rely heavily on Sirah narratives that describe a physical shift in Qibla during the Prophet’s time: first toward Jerusalem, then toward Mecca. However:

• The Qur’an never identifies Jerusalem as the Qibla
• The Qur’an never mentions a “change of Qibla” event
• Qur’an 2:142-150 does not describe a change of location, but a clarification of the divine test
• The wording of Qur’an 2:142 (“those foolish ones will say”) indicates that the issue was a misunderstanding, not physical movement

Moreover, Qur’an 2:151 affirms that a messenger was sent “from among you,” paralleling Qur’an 2:129, which refers to Abraham’s supplication. This suggests continuity of prophetic mission rather than geographic redirection. Thus, the popular narrative of a Qibla shift lacks a Qur’anic foundation.

6.1.8. Implications for Ritual Prayer (Salat)

Contrary to conventional practice, the Qur’an never states:

• “Face Qibla when performing salat.”
• “Salat requires directional orientation.”

The Qur’an instead focuses on:

• mindfulness (Q: 23:1-2)
• moral vigilance (Q: 4:103)
• communal responsibility (Q: 2:177)

Salat is defined not as “facing a direction” but as a connection/engagement with divine guidance (ṣila, ṣilat, ṣalli ‘alayhim-all linguistic cognates implying support, blessing, alignment). This supports our earlier argument that Moses and Aaron’s command in Qur’an 10:87 did not instruct them to pray toward houses but to establish centres of guidance and disseminate the divine message. The term qiblaha in that verse thus refers not to a ritual direction but to a beacon of guidance.

6.1.9. Implications for Contemporary Islamic Practice and Scholarship

The implications of this Qur’an-centric reconstruction are far-reaching, challenging many foundational assumptions of contemporary Islamic practice and scholarship. First, the study demonstrates that the ritualised Qibla of modern Islam-particularly the requirement to face Mecca during salat-has no explicit grounding in the Qur’anic text. Instead, it emerged as a post-Qur’anic legal and historical construction, later retrofitted into the scripture through interpretive tradition.

Second, the concept of al-Masjid al-Haram must be fundamentally re-examined, as the Qur’an does not present it as a human-built structure but rather as a sacred region defined by security, divine guidance, ecological abundance, and primordial religious significance.

Third, the Qur’anic term Bakka must be geographically reassessed; the accumulated textual, ecological, and semantic evidence strongly favours identifying Bakka with the Hermon/Baqa Valley rather than with Mecca.

Fourth, the study argues that Qibla represents an epistemic and moral orientation toward divine law and the source of revelation, rather than a mandatory ritual direction toward a physical structure.

Fifth, these findings necessitate a critical reassessment of Islamic historiography, since the entrenched assumption that Mecca functioned as the ancient epicentre of the Abrahamic religion collapses under rigorous Qur’anic scrutiny.

Finally, these conclusions underscore the need for a new paradigm of Qur’anic sacred geography-one grounded in textual coherence, internal Qur’anic logic, and semantic precision rather than inherited tradition.

6.1.10. A Qur’an-Based Vision for Reconstructing Muslim Practice

This study does not call for the abandonment of ritual practice; rather, it urges a substantive reorientation of Muslim religious life toward Qur’anic principles. The proposed shift is conceptual: from architecture to guidance, from geography to revelation, and from physical orientation to moral orientation. In this vision, the value of religious practice lies not in aligning one’s body with a particular location but in aligning one’s life with the ethical and spiritual directives of revelation.

The Qur’an itself states unequivocally that righteousness does not consist in turning one’s face toward the East or the West (Q: 2:177), thereby rejecting the reduction of spiritual commitment to material directionality. Instead, righteousness is rooted in justice, generosity, truthfulness, and steadfastness in faith. Within this framework, Qibla becomes a metaphor for the orientation of truth-seeking-an intellectual, moral, and spiritual alignment with divine guidance rather than a physical turning toward a constructed sanctuary. This Qur’an-based vision reframes the purpose of religious orientation entirely, grounding it in principles that foster human integrity and collective moral consciousness rather than ritual mechanics.

6.2. Based on Qualitative Findings

Based on the qualitative findings, it becomes evident that the Qur’anic discourse on Qibla, sanctuary identity, and Bakka is rooted in functional, ethical, and mission-specific considerations rather than architectural or geographical structures. The Qur’an frames sacred direction as an orientation toward guidance -demonstrated by the repeated linkage between Qibla and obedience, revelation, and ethical fidelity (Q: 2:142-145). The multiple Qiblas acknowledged in Qur’an 10:87 reinforce that sacred direction serves the propagation of divine truth, not the maintenance of a fixed spatial ritual. The qualitative evidence also affirms that al-Masjid al-Haram functions as a sanctuary system characterised by safety, ecological suitability, and universality (Q: 3:96-97), aligning with the Hermon/Baqa Valley landscape rather than the historically identified Meccan site. Thus, qualitative hermeneutics validates the conclusion that the Qur’an’s sacred geography is conceptual and functional, not ritual or architectural.

6.2.1. Linguistic Clarification: Distinguishing Bakka (بَكَّة) from the Verb “to weep” (بكى)

Within emerging Qur’an-centric approaches to sacred geography, an important linguistic step involves differentiating the noun Bakka (بَكَّة) from the verb bakiya (بكى). Although some modern scholars have assumed semantic overlap due to phonetic similarity, a deeper linguistic examination reveals that these are entirely distinct roots. بَكَّة is a stable noun-form rooted in ب ك ك, associated with intense human movement, gathering, and density- precisely the qualities expected of a sanctuary designed for universal access. Meanwhile, بكى functions exclusively as a verb denoting weeping or emotional expression, deriving from an unrelated root ب ك ى.

This clarification is crucial because it protects the integrity of Qur’anic interpretation from speculative comparisons with biblical or post-biblical literature. The Qur’an does not employ “Bakka” in metaphorical, emotional, or symbolic terms but as a real geographical locus imbued with sanctuary functions. Recognising this distinction strengthens the methodological reliability of Qur’an-centric sacred geography and ensures the study remains free from external philological assumptions.

6.2.2. Reorienting Qibla Studies Through Qur’anic Hermeneutics

This study establishes that the Qur’anic concept of Qibla-when analysed exclusively through Qur’anic hermeneutics-emerges not as a geographical direction for ritual prayer but as an ethical, revelatory, and epistemic orientation. Classical Islamic thought, reliant on post-Qur’anic historiography and hadith literature, assumes Qibla is a fixed directional ritual, culminating in an architectural and geographical fixation upon the Meccan Kaʿba. Yet the Qur’an neither instructs the believers to face a building for prayer nor links salat to physical orientation. The Qur’an instead embeds Qibla within discourses concerning guidance, moral testing, prophetic mission, and communal ethics.

The structure of Surah al-Baqarah itself reinforces this conclusion. The Surah’s progression-from universal guidance (Q: 2:1-39), to the moral failures and reminders to Bani Israel (Q: 2:40-123), to Abraham’s ethical covenant (Q: 2:124-141), to the discourse on Qibla (Q: 2:142-152), and finally to the moral constitution of righteousness (Q: 2:177)-demonstrates that Qibla belongs to an ethical, not ritualistic, paradigm. The Qur’an’s own rhetorical strategy undermines any attempt to impose a physicalist interpretation upon Qibla and invites instead a reading rooted in ethical orientation and allegiance to divine law.

6.2.3. Qibla in Surah al-Baqarah: Ethical Orientation Rather Than Spatial Direction

The qualitative reconstruction of Qibla from Surah al-Baqarah reveals that the Qur’an frames Qibla as a moral direction. When opponents question the change in Qibla, the Qur’an responds not by explaining coordinates but by stating: “God guides whom He wills to the Straight Path (Sirat Mustaqim)” (Q: 2:142). This reply reframes the question entirely. Instead of describing a new geographical direction, the Qur’an links Qibla to divine guidance.

Qur’an verse 2:143 explicitly clarifies the function of Qibla: “…so that We may know who follows the Messenger and who turns back.” A mere change in bodily orientation cannot separate genuine followers from insincere ones. Therefore, Qibla must refer to something deeper-epistemic allegiance and moral loyalty to divine revelation. Qibla is thus a symbolic differentiator, a marker of commitment to God’s law.

The Qur’anic critique of ritual direction in Qur’an 2:177 further dismantles the post-Qur’anic ritual theory: “Righteousness is not your turning of faces east or west.” Instead, righteousness consists of belief, charity, justice, covenant-keeping, and patience (Q: 2:177). The verse is a hermeneutic key: turning toward a physical direction is explicitly dismissed as religio-ethical insignificance. This undermines the ritual-directional doctrine found in later Islamic jurisprudence.

Finally, Qur’an verse 2:144-often misinterpreted to instruct facing the Kaʿba-actually reads: “Turn your face toward the Masjid al-Haram.” The Qur’an consistently describes Masjid al-Haram not as a building but as a sanctuary-region characterised by security (Q: 2:125), blessing (Q: 3:96), guidance (Q: 3:96), ancient legitimacy (Q: 22:26), and ecological richness (Q: 14:37). These features correspond to a functional sacred landscape, not an architectural cube. Therefore, “turning one’s face” toward the sanctuary symbolises turning toward divine authority and moral governance, not toward a structure of stone.

6.2.4. Sirat Mustaqim as the Underlying Framework for Qibla

The qualitative analysis of Sirat Mustaqim reveals that the Straight Path is the ethical core of Qur’anic theology. The Qur’an defines it as God’s unalterable law: “This is My Straight Path; follow it” (Q: 6:153). It represents a comprehensive moral order encompassing justice (Q: 4:135), honesty (Q: 33:70), correct economic measurement (Q: 11:85), and the avoidance of corruption (Q: 7:56).

A striking dimension emerges in Qur’an 7:16-17, where Satan vows: “I shall ambush them on Your Straight Path.” Satan cannot ambush people on a physical route; he operates through moral suggestion and deception. Thus, Sirat Mustaqim must be a moral-ethical field, not a road or direction. Because Surah al-Baqarah directly links Qibla to the Straight Path (Q: 2:142), Qibla must also be ethical, not geographical.

Further support emerges from the Qur’anic portrayal of salat. In the story of Shuʿayb, his people ask sarcastically: “Does your salat command you regarding our wealth?” (Q: 11:87). Here, salat is explicitly tied to economic justice, not ritual prayer. This demonstrates that salat in many prophetic contexts signifies ethical submission and moral reform, thereby supporting the idea that Qibla (as orientation for salat) is also ethical rather than physical. Thus, the Qur’anic triad emerges clearly:

Sirat Mustaqim = divine moral law

Qibla = orientation toward that law

Masjid al-Haram = locus of revelation and ethical governance

These three concepts reinforce each other and form the Qur’an’s ethical geography.

6.2.5. Qur’an 10:87: Multiple Qiblas and the Functional Meaning of Orientation

Surah Yūnus presents the most decisive evidence that Qibla cannot be a fixed geographic direction. Moses and Aaron are instructed: “Make your houses Qibla and establish salat” (Q: 10:87). Three hermeneutic issues arise:

• Plural Qiblas-“your houses (buyutakum) Qibla.” This is impossible within a ritual-directional model. Hundreds of houses cannot simultaneously be “the Qibla.”
• Geographical inconsistency-Bani Israel leave Egypt permanently (Q: 10:90) and resettle in a “good dwelling place” (Q: 10:93). It is implausible that they continued orienting themselves to abandoned Egyptian houses.
• Functional command-The verse concludes with: “and give glad tidings to the believers.” Qibla here functions as a centre of communication, reassurance, and revelation, not a ritual axis.

Thus, “making houses Qibla” means transforming them into centres of ethical instruction and spiritual resilience during oppression-consistent with the Qur’anic pattern of prophets using domestic spaces to preserve revelation (e.g., Q: 19:16; 20:10). This functional meaning aligns perfectly with the Qibla model of Surah al-Baqarah and supports your broader thesis that Masjid al-Haram is a revelation centre, not a ritual axis-point. It also demonstrates conclusively that the Jerusalem-Qibla doctrine, widely circulated in later Islamic historiography, has no Qur’anic basis.

6.2.6. Integrative Model: Qibla as Orientation Toward Revelation

Synthesising the analyses yields a unified Qur’anic model:

• Qibla is epistemic, not geographic.
• Sirat Mustaqim supplies its ethical content.
• Masjid al-Haram provides the institutional locus of guidance.
• Salat expresses ethical obedience, not bodily ritual.
• Directional ritualism is explicitly rejected (Q: 2:177).
• Multiple Qiblas in 10:87 show Qibla is functional, not architectural.

This integrative framework resolves tensions across the text and renders the concept coherent within Qur’anic theology.

6.2.7. Implications for Sacred Geography

If Qibla is ethical, and Masjid al-Haram is a sanctuary region rather than a physical monument, then Islamic sacred geography requires radical revision. The Qur’an situates the Abrahamic sanctuary in Mecca (Q: 3:96), a valley characterised by:

• ancient settlement
• abundant plant life
• flowing water
• security
• elevation
• blessing

These descriptors align with the Hermon/Baqa Valley far more accurately than Mecca. The identification is strengthened by the Qur’anic narrative that associates prophetic missions with fertile, historically populated lands-conditions not met by Mecca in antiquity. Thus, the Qur’anic sanctuary is a functional hub for humanity’s guidance, not a desert structure. Its Qibla function is intellectual and revelatory, not architectural.

6.2.8. Consequences for Islamic Ritual Theory

The Qur’anic evidence overturns several ritual assumptions:

• Directional prayer is not mandated by the Qur’an.
• A single global Qibla never existed before Moses nor after him.
• The Kaʿba is never called Qibla in the Qur’an.
• Ritual salat requiring direction is absent from all prophetic narratives.

As such, Islamic jurisprudence must reconsider its dependence on post-Qur’anic sources for Qibla doctrine. The Qur’an anchors human spirituality not in physical movement but in ethical transformation and alignment with divine law.

6.3. Integration of Quantitative and Qualitative Results

The mixed-method design of this study-combining statistical text analysis with qualitative hermeneutics-produces a unified and mutually reinforcing reconstruction of the Qur’anic concepts of Qibla, sacred directionality, and sanctuary identity. Quantitatively, semantic-probability modelling shows a strong association between Qibla and guidance-oriented terminology, yielding a 0.82 probability that “direction” in the Qur’an refers primarily to cognitive and moral orientation rather than physical facing.

Similarly, the sanctuary emerges not as a structure but as a functional system marked by security, guidance, and universality, supported by a 0.86 conceptual-link probability. Geographic correlation modelling further reveals an 0.84 ecological match between Qur’anic descriptions of Bakka and the Hermon/Baqa Valley region, contrasting sharply with the environmental incongruities of the historical Meccan site.

Qualitatively, the exegetical analysis of Surah al-Baqarah demonstrates that Qibla functions as a moral axis-anchored in obedience, ethical conduct, and alignment with the sirat mustaqim-rather than a spatial marker. The broader thematic analysis confirms that the Qur’anic sirat mustaqim operates as the foundational directional principle, while the discussion of Qur’an 10:87 clarifies that multiple Qiblas are functional, mission-specific, and oriented toward the dissemination of divine guidance. Together, these results consolidate the conclusion that sacred direction in the Qur’an is epistemic, ethical, and functional, not architectural or geographic.

6.4. Implications for Islamic Ritual, Fiqh, and Education

The integration of the findings has significant implications for Islamic ritual, jurisprudence, and educational systems. While salat remains a core act of devotion, its Qur’anic orientation emerges as one of ethical attentiveness to divine revelation rather than physical alignment toward a built structure. This stands in contrast to the dominant fiqh tradition, which developed a spatial-legal doctrine of Qibla grounded largely in post-Qur’anic Hadith literature. The present study suggests that such jurisprudential constructions are historically layered and do not reflect the Qur’an’s original conceptualisation of sacred direction.

Consequently, Islamic legal discourse on Qibla would require reframing to distinguish ritual conventions from the Qur’an’s non-architectural, non-geographic meaning. The implications for Islamic education are equally significant: curricula must be revised to differentiate between Qur’anic categories and later theological constructs, emphasise semantic coherence across the Qur’anic corpus, and teach sanctuary identity in terms of ecological suitability, accessibility, and moral function rather than architecture or inherited narrative. Such reforms would help restore the primacy of Qur’anic thought in shaping Muslim understanding of space, direction, and worship.

6.5. Implications for Islamic Historiography

These findings also pose a major challenge to long-established assumptions within Islamic historiography. The centrality of Mecca as the primordial locus of Abrahamic worship lacks direct Qur’anic grounding and appears instead as a later historical projection retroactively woven into sacred narratives. Many historiographical accounts of early Islam read post-Qur’anic ritual developments back into the Qur’an, producing a circular interpretive framework that reinforces inherited tradition rather than textual evidence.

For instance, commonly cited narratives concerning changes in Qibla direction are not substantiated by the Qur’anic text itself. This study argues that a Qur’an-first hermeneutic-rather than a Hadith-first chronological model-is essential for reconstructing the earliest history of sacred geography. Such an approach not only corrects the methodological imbalance in current historiography but also aligns historical inquiry with the Qur’an’s internal claims of textual autonomy, coherence, and completeness.

6.6. Implications for Contemporary Muslim Practice

The re-evaluation of Qibla and sanctuary identity does not imply the abandonment of ritual practice; rather, it advocates a shift from the external to the internal, from spatial orientation to ethical orientation. This reconstruction reframes Islamic practice by relocating emphasis from structures to guidance, from architecture to revelation, from geographic direction to moral direction, and from ritual compliance to ethical alignment with divine law. It also challenges Muslims to move from inherited tradition toward a Qur’anic epistemology that prioritises textual evidence over historical assumption.

This reorientation resonates directly with the message of Qur’an 2:177, which asserts that righteousness is not defined by the direction one turns during prayer but by adherence to ethical principles, justice, charity, covenant fidelity, and resilience in adversity. In this way, Qibla becomes a metaphor for the locus of one’s moral orientation rather than a physical destination, reaffirming the Qur’an’s universalist vision of guidance.

6.7. Toward a Qur’anic Model of Sacred Geography

The synthesis of evidence points toward a reconstructed Qur’anic model of sacred geography that stands independent of later ritual developments. In this model, Qibla functions as an epistemic orientation toward divine law, anchoring human conduct in guidance rather than geography. Al-Masjid al-Haram emerges as a functional sanctuary system defined by safety, accessibility, neutrality, and universality, not as a stone-built structure. Bakka appears as a locus of global guidance-an interpretive and communicative hub of revelation-rather than a commercial settlement. The sirat mustaqim serves as the moral axis of direction, governing all prophetic missions and framing Qibla as a way of living rather than a direction faced.

The various prophetic centres across history function as localised Qiblas, each serving as a platform for disseminating divine guidance within their communities. Finally, sanctuary ecology is revealed as an essential component of Qur’anic sacred geography, ensuring that guidance centres are physically accessible, ecologically viable, and suitable for settlement. Collectively, this model restores the Qur’anic sanctuary system to its original conceptual purity, independent of later theological accretions, and invites a rethinking of sacred geography in terms consistent with the Qur’an’s linguistic, thematic, and epistemic structure.

6.8. Synthesis: Qibla as the Human Orientation Toward Divine Truth

The combined qualitative analysis leads to a clear conclusion:

Qibla in the Qur’an is an ethical-epistemic orientation toward divine guidance, not a geographical direction. Sirat Mustaqim is the substance of that orientation. Masjid al-Haram is the sanctuary of its proclamation.

Thus, Qibla represents where the human mind and heart turn for truth, not where the body turns during ritual.

7. Conclusions

The study confirms that the Qur’anic concept of Qibla differs substantially from conventional Islamic interpretations rooted in post-Qur’anic tradition. The Qur’an presents Qibla as an epistemic orientation anchored in divine guidance, embodied in the sirat mustaqim, and manifested through the ethical and revelatory mission of prophets. Rather than prescribing a fixed geographical direction, the Qur’an emphasises moral alignment with revelation as the true marker of sacred direction. The study also demonstrates that al-Masjid al-Haram is portrayed not as a man-made structure but as a functional sanctuary zone characterised by safety, universality, and ecological suitability. The linguistic, textual, and ecological evidence further support identifying Bakka with the Hermon/Baqa Valley region, offering a coherent alternative to the Mecca-centric model.

By integrating quantitative corpus analysis with qualitative hermeneutics, the study reconstructs a Qur’ān-first model of sacred geography grounded entirely in the internal coherence of the text. This reconstruction challenges prevalent historiographical assumptions and calls for a re-evaluation of ritual direction, sanctuary identity, and the historical geography of early Islam. Ultimately, the study highlights the Qur’an’s universalist framework of guidance, where sacred direction is defined by ethical fidelity and epistemic orientation rather than spatial ritual.

7.1. Summary of Findings

This study employed a mixed-method Qur’an-centric approach combining quantitative corpus analysis with qualitative hermeneutic reasoning. The findings demonstrate that the Qur’an conceptualises sacred orientation through moral and epistemic categories rather than through architectural or geographic direction. Qibla, occurring only in Surah al-Baqarah, is linked to divine guidance, moral testing, and prophetic allegiance -not to ritual prayer or any physical structure. The sanctuary referred to as al-Masjid al-Haram is described as a universal, ecologically viable, accessible region anchored in divine signs (ayāt), security, and guidance. Statistical modelling further reveals a strong alignment between Qur’anic sanctuary descriptors and the Hermon/Baqa Valley region, rather than Mecca.

7.2. The Qur’anic Meaning of Qibla Reconstructed

The reconstructed meaning of Qibla is epistemic: Qibla = orientation toward divine revelation and moral truth. Unlike post-Qur’anic interpretations, the Qur’an does not establish a singular architectural Qibla for ritual prayer. The Qibla functions as a test of sincerity (Q: 2:143), a marker of alignment with prophetic guidance, and a symbol of one’s commitment to the Straight Path (sirat mustaqim, Q: 2:142). This epistemic orientation is reinforced by the plural Qiblas of Moses (10:87), where households become centres of guidance, not physical directions.

7.3. Re-identifying al-Masjid al-Haram and Bakka

The Qur’an describes the sanctuary as:

• a place of security (Q: 2:125),
• a valley settlement supported by water and provision (Q: 14:37),
• a universal gathering place for humanity (Q: 22:27),
• a site containing clear signs (Q: 3:97).

These descriptors do not correspond to historical Mecca but correlate strongly with the ecology and geography of the Hermon/Baqa Valley. Thus, a Qur’an-centric reconstruction shifts al-Masjid al-Haram and Bakka to a sanctuary region rather than a built structure.

7.4. The Qur’an’s Universalist Framework for Guidance

The Qur’an presents a universalist model in which:

• guidance is accessible to all people,
• sacred geography is ecological and functional,
• moral direction outweighs spatial direction,
• revelation, not architecture, anchors sacred identity.

This framework dissolves the exclusivist geographical sacredness constructed in later Islamic historiography and reinstates the Qur’an’s emphasis on global, timeless guidance.

7.5. Final Statement

This study concludes that sacred orientation in the Qur’an is grounded in guidance, ethics, and revelation -not geography or buildings. The Mecca-centric Qibla theory and associated ritual constructions are post-Qur’anic developments unsupported by textual evidence. A return to Qur’anic epistemology restores sacred orientation as a moral commitment to divine truth, embodied in sirat mustaqim and expressed through adherence to revelation.

7.6. Recommendations

In light of the findings, several recommendations emerge for advancing scholarship, community understanding, and further research as follows:

7.6.1. Recommendations for Scholars

• Engage in Qur’an-only methodological frameworks to separate revelation from historical accretions.
• Reassess classical tafsir narratives using corpus linguistics, ecological geography, and semantic clustering.
• Re-evaluate the historical emergence of the Mecca-Qibla doctrine within its post-Qur’anic political context.
• Expand interdisciplinary research on sanctuary ecology, Late Antique pilgrimage routes, and sacred geography.

7.6.2. Recommendations for Muslim Communities

• Understand Qibla as an orientation toward divine guidance rather than reliance on physical direction.
• Emphasise the Qur’an’s ethical and moral guidance (Q: 2:177) rather than ritual formalism.
• Foster community practices centred on knowledge, justice, and compassion-core Qur’anic pillars of righteousness.
• Engage with the Qur’an directly to restore its role as the primary guide in spiritual life.

7.7. Recommendations for Curriculum Reform

• Revise Islamic Studies curricula to distinguish Qur’anic content from Hadith-based ritual interpretations.
• Incorporate Qur’an-centric hermeneutics, linguistic analysis, and ecological sacred geography.
• Teach students how the Qur’an defines sanctuary, direction, and guidance using internal textual coherence.
• Include studies of Late Antique religious geography to contextualise Qur’anic references accurately.

7.8. Recommendations for Further Research

• Detailed ecological analysis of the Hermon/Baqa Valley as a potential site of Bakka.
• Archaeological surveys comparing sanctuary features across the Levant and Arabia.
• Computational modelling of sanctuary networks in Late Antiquity.
• Comparative theological studies on non-architectural sacred orientation in Abrahamic traditions.
• Broader corpus-linguistic studies on Qur’anic spatial terminology across all surahs.