Research Design in Social Sciences Research: Exploring Methodological Evolution and Comprehensive Insights

1. Introduction

The evolution of research design in the social sciences reflects the dynamic and multifaceted nature of human behavior, social structures, and cultural phenomena. Rooted in the works of early sociologists, anthropologists, and psychologists, the methodological approaches in social sciences have undergone significant transformation, shifting from rigid positivist frameworks to more flexible and integrative paradigms that accommodate complexity, diversity, and contextual specificity. The transition mirrors broader epistemological debates about the nature of knowledge, reality, and the methods deemed appropriate for inquiry. This systematic literature review delves into the methodological evolution in social sciences, offering insights into the nuanced developments that have shaped contemporary research practices. The journey of research design began with a heavy reliance on positivism, influenced by the natural sciences. Researchers sought to uncover universal laws governing social phenomena, employing quantitative methods that prioritized objectivity, measurability, and reproducibility. Scholars like Comte emphasized systematic observation and empirical validation as cornerstones of social science research, laying the groundwork for structured methodologies. However, as early as the mid-20th century, critiques of positivism began to emerge, highlighting its inability to capture the subjective, interpretive dimensions of human experience (Guba and Lincoln, 1994). This critique paved the way for a more pluralistic approach, fostering the integration of qualitative methods to address questions that demanded depth, nuance, and contextual understanding. The 1970s and 1980s marked a pivotal era in the methodological diversification of social sciences. Interpretive paradigms, influenced by thinkers such as Foucault and Bourdieu, challenged the dominance of positivism by foregrounding the role of language, culture, and power in shaping social realities. The rise of qualitative methodologies, such as grounded theory (Charmaz, 2014) and ethnography, reflected this epistemological shift. These approaches emphasized the co-construction of knowledge between researchers and participants, underscoring the importance of reflexivity and the recognition of researcher bias (Bourdieu, 1992). This period also saw the emergence of critical theory and feminist methodologies, which critiqued traditional research designs for perpetuating power imbalances and marginalizing diverse voices. These frameworks prioritized participatory and emancipatory practices, advocating for research as a tool for social change.

Simultaneously, advances in statistical methods and computational technologies expanded the scope of quantitative research. The development of structural equation modeling (Hair et al., 2017), multilevel modeling, and mediation analysis (Hayes and Scharkow, 2013) enabled researchers to explore complex relationships among variables with greater precision. The integration of these techniques in longitudinal studies, experimental designs, and cross-cultural research underscored the versatility of quantitative approaches in addressing diverse research questions. However, the critique of quantitative research for its potential reductionism persisted, leading to calls for methodological triangulation and the adoption of mixed-methods designs (Creswell and Poth, 2016). The methodological evolution in social sciences has been profoundly influenced by interdisciplinary collaborations and global challenges. Fields such as psychology, sociology, and education have increasingly intersected with public health, environmental studies, and technology, necessitating innovative research designs that bridge disciplinary boundaries. For instance, the integration of digital tools in data collection, such as online surveys and social media analytics, has transformed the landscape of empirical research, offering opportunities for large-scale data generation and real-time analysis (Kapoor et al., 2018). However, these advancements have also raised ethical concerns about data privacy, representation, and consent, prompting researchers to adopt frameworks like the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR, 2016) to guide ethical practices. Contemporary social science research is characterized by its embrace of methodological pluralism, driven by the recognition that no single approach can adequately address the multifaceted nature of social phenomena. This pluralism is evident in the growing adoption of mixed-methods research, which combines quantitative and qualitative techniques to leverage their respective strengths. Mixed-methods designs, such as convergent parallel and explanatory sequential approaches, enable researchers to triangulate findings, enhance validity, and explore phenomena from multiple perspectives (Dawadi et al., 2021). These designs have proven particularly valuable in applied research contexts, such as program evaluation, policy analysis, and community-based studies.

The evolution of research design is also reflected in the pedagogical approaches to teaching research methods in social sciences. Scholars have emphasized the importance of fostering critical thinking, methodological literacy, and ethical sensitivity among students (Wagner et al., 2011). Innovative teaching strategies, such as experiential learning, role play, and the use of technology-enhanced learning environments, have been proposed to bridge the gap between theory and practice (Rao and Stupans, 2012). Moreover, the emphasis on collaborative learning and interdisciplinary dialogue has highlighted the need for research training that prepares students to navigate the complexities of real-world challenges.

Despite these advancements, the field continues to grapple with several challenges. The increasing reliance on digital tools and big data raises questions about the generalizability of findings, particularly in contexts where access to technology is uneven. Additionally, the push for open science and transparency in research processes, while commendable, has highlighted tensions between academic rigor and the practicality of implementing open-access practices (Besançon et al., 2020). These challenges underscore the need for ongoing dialogue among researchers, practitioners, and policymakers to navigate the ethical and methodological dilemmas of contemporary research. The evolution of research design in social sciences reflects a dynamic interplay of epistemological shifts, technological advancements, and societal imperatives. The field has moved from a rigid adherence to positivist frameworks toward a more inclusive and integrative approach that values methodological diversity, reflexivity, and contextual sensitivity. This evolution not only enriches our understanding of social phenomena but also equips researchers to address the complex challenges of the 21st century. As social sciences continue to evolve, the commitment to methodological innovation, ethical rigor, and interdisciplinary collaboration will remain pivotal in shaping the future of research.

2. Method

The method section of this systematic literature review involved a structured and iterative process designed to ensure a comprehensive exploration of research design trends in the social sciences. Adopting a systematic approach enabled the inclusion of a broad array of studies while maintaining rigor, transparency, and replicability in the research process. The methodology was guided by best practices for systematic reviews, including predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria, a transparent search strategy, and robust methods for analyzing and synthesizing the findings from diverse sources. The aim was to provide a detailed and nuanced understanding of methodological evolution in the field.

The first stage of the review process involved identifying and defining the research scope. Social science research spans various disciplines such as sociology, psychology, anthropology, education, and political science, each with its own methodological traditions and innovations. To ensure relevance and coherence, this review focused on studies addressing the evolution, critique, and application of research designs in these fields. A comprehensive research question was formulated to guide the review: “How has research design in social sciences evolved, and what insights can be drawn about contemporary methodological practices?” This question provided a framework for selecting, analyzing, and synthesizing relevant studies.

A systematic search strategy was then developed to identify relevant literature. Multiple academic databases, including Scopus, Web of Science, JSTOR, and Google Scholar, were utilized to capture a diverse range of sources. Keywords and Boolean operators were employed to refine the search, with terms such as “research design in social sciences,” “methodological evolution,” “qualitative research,” “quantitative research,” “mixed methods,” “methodological critiques,” and “innovations in social science methods.” The search was further narrowed by applying filters for peer-reviewed journal articles, books, and conference papers published between 2000 and 2023, ensuring the inclusion of contemporary and relevant studies. References from key articles were also examined to identify additional sources, a technique known as snowball sampling. To ensure the inclusion of high-quality and relevant studies, predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied. Studies were included if they provided insights into the development, application, or critique of research designs in social sciences. Articles discussing interdisciplinary research, digital methods, and ethical considerations in methodological practices were also considered relevant. Conversely, studies focusing exclusively on technical aspects of statistical tools or theoretical discourses with no empirical application were excluded. Articles not published in English were omitted to maintain consistency and accessibility for analysis. The selection process involved multiple stages. After removing duplicates, the titles and abstracts of identified articles were screened against the inclusion criteria. Full-text reviews were conducted for potentially relevant articles to assess their alignment with the research question. To enhance reliability, the selection process was independently performed by two reviewers, and discrepancies were resolved through discussion and consensus. This rigorous screening process ensured that only studies meeting the predefined criteria were included in the review.

Data extraction was performed systematically using a predefined extraction sheet. Key information from each study, including author details, publication year, research focus, methodological approach, key findings, and relevance to the research question, was documented. This process facilitated the organization and comparison of data across studies. The extracted data were further categorized based on themes, such as the emergence of mixed methods, the critique of positivism, advances in digital methodologies, and ethical considerations in research design. This thematic categorization provided a structured framework for analysis and synthesis. The synthesis of findings was conducted using both narrative and thematic analysis. Narrative synthesis allowed for a chronological exploration of methodological developments, highlighting key milestones and trends. Thematic analysis, on the other hand, enabled a deeper exploration of recurring themes and patterns across studies. Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six-phase framework for thematic analysis was applied, involving familiarization with the data, generating initial codes, searching for themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes, and producing the final synthesis. This dual approach ensured a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the literature. Critical appraisal of included studies was an integral part of the review process. The quality and rigor of each study were assessed using established criteria, such as methodological transparency, validity, reliability, and ethical considerations. For qualitative studies, criteria such as credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability were applied, as suggested by Guba and Lincoln (1994). Quantitative studies were evaluated based on the robustness of their statistical analyses, clarity in reporting results, and the generalizability of findings. Mixed-methods studies were appraised for their integration of quantitative and qualitative components and their ability to address complex research questions. Ethical considerations were given due importance throughout the review process. Ensuring the ethical integrity of included studies was paramount, particularly in discussions of participant consent, data privacy, and the representation of marginalized groups. Given the focus on research design, the review also considered the ethical implications of methodological choices, such as the inclusivity of participatory methods and the risks of perpetuating power imbalances in certain research contexts (Lewthwaite and Nind, 2016). Ethical concerns raised in the literature informed the critical appraisal process and contributed to the synthesis of insights on best practices.

The review also incorporated a reflexive approach, acknowledging the influence of the researchers’ perspectives on the interpretation of findings. Reflexivity was maintained through regular discussions among the reviewers to address potential biases and ensure a balanced and critical engagement with the literature. This approach was particularly important given the diverse range of studies and methodological perspectives included in the review. The iterative nature of the review process allowed for flexibility and responsiveness to emerging insights. As themes and patterns began to surface during the analysis, additional searches were conducted to fill gaps and ensure a comprehensive exploration of the topic. For instance, the initial review revealed the growing importance of digital methodologies and ethical challenges in big data research, prompting a targeted search for studies addressing these issues. This iterative approach ensured the inclusion of recent and relevant developments in the field.

The synthesis of findings provided a rich and detailed understanding of methodological evolution in social sciences. Key insights included the increasing adoption of mixed methods, the integration of digital tools in data collection and analysis, the emphasis on participatory and inclusive research practices, and the ongoing debates about ethical considerations and power dynamics. The review also highlighted the role of interdisciplinary collaborations in driving methodological innovation, as well as the challenges posed by technological advancements and global issues. In summary, the method section of this systematic literature review adhered to a rigorous and transparent approach, encompassing a comprehensive search strategy, predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria, systematic data extraction, critical appraisal, and thematic synthesis. The use of reflexive and iterative processes further enriched the review, ensuring a balanced and nuanced exploration of research design in social sciences. By synthesizing insights from a diverse range of studies, this review contributes to a deeper understanding of the methodological developments shaping contemporary social science research.

3. Results

The results of this systematic literature review provide a comprehensive account of the methodological evolution and the current landscape of research design in social sciences. Through an analysis of diverse studies, this review reveals key trends, innovations, challenges, and areas of contention that have shaped research practices across various disciplines. The findings highlight the dynamic interplay between theoretical developments, technological advancements, and societal needs, illustrating the complex nature of methodological evolution in the social sciences.

A central theme emerging from the review is the increasing methodological pluralism in social science research. Early methodological approaches were dominated by positivist paradigms, characterized by the application of quantitative techniques designed to establish causal relationships and predict social phenomena. However, the limitations of positivism in capturing the subjective, contextual, and interpretive dimensions of human behavior became evident over time. This realization led to the diversification of research methods, with qualitative approaches gaining prominence. Ethnography, phenomenology, and narrative inquiry emerged as powerful tools for exploring complex social phenomena, emphasizing depth, context, and meaning. The growing acceptance of qualitative methods was accompanied by a recognition of the importance of reflexivity, positionality, and the co-construction of knowledge between researchers and participants.

Table 1. Summary of Research Methodologies and Findings in Social Science Research.

Sl.	Authors/Year	Methodology	Findings
1	(Acero et al., 2000)	Principles and strategies of teaching	Discusses various strategies for effective teaching.
2	(Alexander, 2018)	Dialogic Teaching	Explores the process of developing dialogic teaching methods for educational settings.
3	(Alfons et al., 2022)	Bootstrap test for mediation analysis	Examines a robust bootstrap test for mediation analysis in organizational research.
4	(Anderson et al., 2019)	Quantitative theory-testing in entrepreneurship	Focuses on enhancing quantitative methods for theory-testing in entrepreneurship research.
5	(Atran, 1990)	Cognitive foundations of natural history	Explores cognitive foundations and their role in anthropology and natural history.
6	(Ayres & Knafle, 2008)	Typological analysis	Defines typological analysis and its role in qualitative research methods.
7	(Bailey, 1994)	Typologies and Taxonomies	Introduction to classification techniques in social research.
8	(Baron & Kenny, 1986)	Moderator-mediator variable analysis	Explains the distinction between moderator and mediator variables in social psychology.
9	(Barraket, 2005)	Student-centered teaching methods	Discusses critical reflections on using student-centered approaches in teaching research methods.
10	(Besançon et al., 2020)	Open and non-anonymized peer reviewing	Surveys attitudes towards open and non-anonymized peer reviewing in academic publishing.
11	(Bloomfield & Fisher, 2019)	Quantitative research design	Provides an overview of quantitative research design in rehabilitation nursing.
12	(Borkan, 1999)	Immersion/Crystallization	Describes the immersion/crystallization approach for qualitative research.
13	(Bourdieu, 1992)	Reflexive sociology	Discusses the practice of reflexive sociology and its implications for research design.
14	(Bowker & Star, 1999)	Classification and categorization	Investigates the implications of classification in social research.
15	(Boyatzis, 1998)	Thematic analysis	Explains how thematic analysis and code development can transform qualitative data.
16	(Boyne, 1990)	Foucault and Derrida’s theories	Analyzes the contributions of Foucault and Derrida to the philosophy of science.
17	(Braun & Clarke, 2016)	Thematic analysis	Critiques Fugard and Potts’ sample-size tool for thematic analysis.
18	(Brown, 2004)	Leadership for social justice	Discusses how leadership for social justice can be integrated into educational frameworks.
19	(Brown & McIntyre, 1993)	Teaching theory and practice	Focuses on making sense of teaching practices in educational settings.
20	(Bryman, 2016)	Social research methods	Provides an overview of social research methods and their application in various fields.
21	(Cartwright et al., 2021)	Social media in B2B marketing	Reviews the strategic use of social media in business-to-business marketing.
22	(Choi et al., 2023)	Framework for web credibility	Develops a framework for assessing the credibility of Q&A websites.
23	(Condon, 2004)	Film	Discusses the portrayal of research methods in the film Kinsey.
24	(Cooper et al., 2012)	Grounded theory	Presents a grounded theory of inductive qualitative research education.
25	(Creswell & Poth, 2016)	Qualitative inquiry and research design	Offers a comprehensive guide to qualitative research design in social sciences.
26	(Daniel, 2018)	Academic identity of research method teachers	Explores the academic identity of those who teach research methodology.
27	(Dawadi et al., 2021)	Mixed-methods research	Discusses types, challenges, and criticisms of mixed-methods research.
28	(Dawson, 2016)	Teaching research methods	Provides 100 activities for teaching research methods in social sciences.
29	(Densgombe, 1982)	Hidden pedagogy	Analyzes the implications of ‘hidden pedagogy’ for teacher training.
30	(Dick et al., 2001)	Instructional design	Introduces the systematic design of instructional practices.
31	(Earley, 2014)	Research methods education	Synthesizes the literature on research methods education in higher education.
32	(Foshay, 1975)	Teaching tactics and strategies	Discusses various teaching tactics and strategies for educational leaders.
33	(Foucault, 1970)	Archaeology of human sciences	Analyzes the concept of the order of things in the human sciences.
34	(Foucault, 1972)	Archaeology of knowledge	Explores Foucault’s concept of the archaeology of knowledge in research.
35	(Fowler, 2013)	Survey research methods	Provides comprehensive guidelines for conducting survey-based research.
36	(Galliers & Huang, 2012)	Teaching qualitative research methods	Explores the teaching of qualitative research methods in information systems.
37	(Gamble, 2001)	Craft apprenticeship	Investigates the pedagogy of craft apprenticeship in adult education.
38	(Garcia, 1989)	Focus on teaching	Focuses on the teaching strategies in educational practice.
39	(GDPR, 2016)	Data protection regulation	Discusses the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and its implications for research.
40	(Goodyear, 1999)	Pedagogical frameworks	Explores the role of pedagogical frameworks in open and distance learning.
41	(Gregor, 2006)	Theory in information systems	Discusses the nature of theory in information systems research.
42	(Guba et al., 1994)	Qualitative research paradigms	Analyzes competing paradigms in qualitative research.
43	(Hacking, 1995)	Looping effects	Examines the concept of “looping effects” in the social sciences.
44	(Haggis, 2003)	Approaches to learning research	Investigates the implications of ‘approaches to learning’ research in higher education.
45	(Hair et al., 2017)	PLS-SEM in information systems	Explores the use of Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) in information systems research.
46	(Hair & Alamer, 2022)	PLS-SEM in education	Discusses the application of PLS-SEM in second language and education research.
47	(Hammersley, 2012)	Teaching social research methods	Discusses the challenges and possibilities of teaching social research methods effectively.
48	(Hayes & Scharkow, 2013)	Statistical mediation analysis	Evaluates the trustworthiness of inferential tests in statistical mediation analysis.
49	(Hoggan, 2016)	Typology of transformation	Reviews transformative learning literature and its typology.
50	(Hsuing, 2008)	Reflexivity in qualitative interviewing	Explores the concept of reflexivity in qualitative interviewing techniques.
51	(Hurworth, 2008)	Teaching qualitative research	Discusses case studies and issues in teaching qualitative research methods.
52	(Kapoor et al., 2018)	Social media research	Reviews advances in social media research and its impact on information systems.
53	(Khoa et al., 2023)	Qualitative research in social sciences	Explores data collection, analysis, and report writing in qualitative social research.
54	(Kilburn et al., 2014)	Pedagogical culture in research methods	Investigates the development of a pedagogical culture for teaching social science research methods.
55	(Kline, 2023)	Structural equation modeling	Discusses the principles and practices of Structural Equation Modeling (SEM).
56	(Kluge, 2000)	Typology construction in qualitative research	Focuses on empirically grounded construction of types and typologies in qualitative research.
57	(Lee, 2023)	Entrepreneurship for development	Analyzes the rise of global ‘entrepreneurship for development’ agendas and their implications.
58	(Levin, 2013)	Research knowledge use	Explores the role of research knowledge and its application in educational practices.
59	(Lewis & Dehler, 2000)	Learning through paradox	Examines the use of paradox as a pedagogical strategy for exploring contradictions in management education.
60	(Lewis-Beck, 1994)	Introduction to typologies	Provides an introduction to classification techniques, focusing on typologies and taxonomies.
61	(Lewthwaite & Nind, 2016)	Teaching research methods	Discusses expert perspectives on pedagogy and practice in teaching social science research methods.
62	(Lucas & Claxton, 2013)	Pedagogic leadership	Focuses on the role of pedagogic leadership in creating outstanding vocational learning practices.
63	(Luff et al., 2015)	Typology of research methods	Reviews the typology of research methods in social sciences and their implications for pedagogy.
64	(Lunsford et al., 2013)	Mentoring in higher education	Investigates the costs of mentoring in higher education faculty and its implications for institutional practices.
65	(Luttwak, 2001)	Strategy theory	Explores the logic of peace and war in strategic decision-making.
66	(Meyer & Land, 2005)	Threshold concepts in education	Discusses the concept of threshold concepts in higher education and their impact on learning.
67	(Nind et al., 2016)	Research methods pedagogy	Examines research methods for pedagogy and the development of pedagogical knowledge in social sciences.
68	(Nind & Lewthwaite, 2018a)	Pedagogic research methods	Discusses methods that teach and the development of pedagogy in research methods education.
69	(Nind & Lewthwaite, 2018b)	Inclusive pedagogy in research methods	Explores inclusive pedagogy in teaching social science research methods and its challenges.
70	(Nind et al., 2015)	Teaching social research methods	Examines developments in pedagogical knowledge for teaching social research methods.
71	(Nind et al., 2014)	Video and dialogue in pedagogy	Investigates the use of video and dialogue to enhance pedagogic knowledge in social research methods education.
72	(Olssen, 2006)	Foucault’s materialism	Explores the materialist interpretations of education through Foucault’s theories.
73	(Ott & Longnecker, 2010)	Statistical methods in research	Provides an introduction to statistical methods and data analysis in scientific research.
74	(Perry & Paterson, 2005)	Nursing rounds pedagogy	Examines the use of nursing rounds as a pedagogical strategy in gerontological nursing education.
75	(Polanyi, 1958)	Post-critical philosophy	Discusses Polanyi’s philosophy and its implications for the social sciences and education.
76	(Ponterotto & Reynolds, 2017)	Ethical considerations in psychobiography	Explores the ethical and legal considerations in psychobiographical research.
77	(Rao & Stupans, 2012)	Role play in education	Discusses the potential of role play as a pedagogical tool in higher education.
78	(Rix & Twining, 2007)	Education systems typology	Explores typologies for future learning systems and their implications for educational practices.
79	(Ryle, 1949)	Philosophy of mind	Provides an exploration of Ryle’s views on the concept of mind in the context of philosophy.
80	(Saldaña, 2016)	Coding in qualitative research	Offers a manual for coding qualitative data and its implications for researchers.
81	(Salmon, 2005)	E-learning framework	Discusses strategic frameworks for e-learning and pedagogical innovation in higher education.
82	(Sellar, 2009)	Pedagogy of uncertainty	Explores the responsible uncertainty in pedagogy and its implications for educational research.
83	(Silver & Woolf, 2015)	CAQDAS pedagogy	Investigates the development of the Five-Level QDA as a CAQDAS pedagogy for qualitative data analysis.
84	(Stake, 2000)	Case study research	Explores the art of case study research and its application in social sciences.
85	(Stratton, 2021)	Convenience sampling strategies	Discusses strategies for population research, focusing on convenience sampling.
86	(Taber, 2018)	Cronbach’s alpha in research	Analyzes the use of Cronbach’s alpha in developing and reporting research instruments in science education.
87	(Wagner et al., 2011)	Teaching research methods	Discusses the state of the art of teaching research methods in the social sciences.
88	(Wild et al., 2017)	Statistical inference	Examines accessible conceptions of statistical inference in research and education.

Table 1. Summary of Research Methodologies and Findings in Social Science Research.

Sl.	Authors/Year	Methodology	Findings
1	(Acero et al., 2000)	Principles and strategies of teaching	Discusses various strategies for effective teaching.
2	(Alexander, 2018)	Dialogic Teaching	Explores the process of developing dialogic teaching methods for educational settings.
3	(Alfons et al., 2022)	Bootstrap test for mediation analysis	Examines a robust bootstrap test for mediation analysis in organizational research.
4	(Anderson et al., 2019)	Quantitative theory-testing in entrepreneurship	Focuses on enhancing quantitative methods for theory-testing in entrepreneurship research.
5	(Atran, 1990)	Cognitive foundations of natural history	Explores cognitive foundations and their role in anthropology and natural history.
6	(Ayres & Knafle, 2008)	Typological analysis	Defines typological analysis and its role in qualitative research methods.
7	(Bailey, 1994)	Typologies and Taxonomies	Introduction to classification techniques in social research.
8	(Baron & Kenny, 1986)	Moderator-mediator variable analysis	Explains the distinction between moderator and mediator variables in social psychology.
9	(Barraket, 2005)	Student-centered teaching methods	Discusses critical reflections on using student-centered approaches in teaching research methods.
10	(Besançon et al., 2020)	Open and non-anonymized peer reviewing	Surveys attitudes towards open and non-anonymized peer reviewing in academic publishing.
11	(Bloomfield & Fisher, 2019)	Quantitative research design	Provides an overview of quantitative research design in rehabilitation nursing.
12	(Borkan, 1999)	Immersion/Crystallization	Describes the immersion/crystallization approach for qualitative research.
13	(Bourdieu, 1992)	Reflexive sociology	Discusses the practice of reflexive sociology and its implications for research design.
14	(Bowker & Star, 1999)	Classification and categorization	Investigates the implications of classification in social research.
15	(Boyatzis, 1998)	Thematic analysis	Explains how thematic analysis and code development can transform qualitative data.
16	(Boyne, 1990)	Foucault and Derrida’s theories	Analyzes the contributions of Foucault and Derrida to the philosophy of science.
17	(Braun & Clarke, 2016)	Thematic analysis	Critiques Fugard and Potts’ sample-size tool for thematic analysis.
18	(Brown, 2004)	Leadership for social justice	Discusses how leadership for social justice can be integrated into educational frameworks.
19	(Brown & McIntyre, 1993)	Teaching theory and practice	Focuses on making sense of teaching practices in educational settings.
20	(Bryman, 2016)	Social research methods	Provides an overview of social research methods and their application in various fields.
21	(Cartwright et al., 2021)	Social media in B2B marketing	Reviews the strategic use of social media in business-to-business marketing.
22	(Choi et al., 2023)	Framework for web credibility	Develops a framework for assessing the credibility of Q&A websites.
23	(Condon, 2004)	Film	Discusses the portrayal of research methods in the film Kinsey.
24	(Cooper et al., 2012)	Grounded theory	Presents a grounded theory of inductive qualitative research education.
25	(Creswell & Poth, 2016)	Qualitative inquiry and research design	Offers a comprehensive guide to qualitative research design in social sciences.
26	(Daniel, 2018)	Academic identity of research method teachers	Explores the academic identity of those who teach research methodology.
27	(Dawadi et al., 2021)	Mixed-methods research	Discusses types, challenges, and criticisms of mixed-methods research.
28	(Dawson, 2016)	Teaching research methods	Provides 100 activities for teaching research methods in social sciences.
29	(Densgombe, 1982)	Hidden pedagogy	Analyzes the implications of ‘hidden pedagogy’ for teacher training.
30	(Dick et al., 2001)	Instructional design	Introduces the systematic design of instructional practices.
31	(Earley, 2014)	Research methods education	Synthesizes the literature on research methods education in higher education.
32	(Foshay, 1975)	Teaching tactics and strategies	Discusses various teaching tactics and strategies for educational leaders.
33	(Foucault, 1970)	Archaeology of human sciences	Analyzes the concept of the order of things in the human sciences.
34	(Foucault, 1972)	Archaeology of knowledge	Explores Foucault’s concept of the archaeology of knowledge in research.
35	(Fowler, 2013)	Survey research methods	Provides comprehensive guidelines for conducting survey-based research.
36	(Galliers & Huang, 2012)	Teaching qualitative research methods	Explores the teaching of qualitative research methods in information systems.
37	(Gamble, 2001)	Craft apprenticeship	Investigates the pedagogy of craft apprenticeship in adult education.
38	(Garcia, 1989)	Focus on teaching	Focuses on the teaching strategies in educational practice.
39	(GDPR, 2016)	Data protection regulation	Discusses the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and its implications for research.
40	(Goodyear, 1999)	Pedagogical frameworks	Explores the role of pedagogical frameworks in open and distance learning.
41	(Gregor, 2006)	Theory in information systems	Discusses the nature of theory in information systems research.
42	(Guba et al., 1994)	Qualitative research paradigms	Analyzes competing paradigms in qualitative research.
43	(Hacking, 1995)	Looping effects	Examines the concept of “looping effects” in the social sciences.
44	(Haggis, 2003)	Approaches to learning research	Investigates the implications of ‘approaches to learning’ research in higher education.
45	(Hair et al., 2017)	PLS-SEM in information systems	Explores the use of Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) in information systems research.
46	(Hair & Alamer, 2022)	PLS-SEM in education	Discusses the application of PLS-SEM in second language and education research.
47	(Hammersley, 2012)	Teaching social research methods	Discusses the challenges and possibilities of teaching social research methods effectively.
48	(Hayes & Scharkow, 2013)	Statistical mediation analysis	Evaluates the trustworthiness of inferential tests in statistical mediation analysis.
49	(Hoggan, 2016)	Typology of transformation	Reviews transformative learning literature and its typology.
50	(Hsuing, 2008)	Reflexivity in qualitative interviewing	Explores the concept of reflexivity in qualitative interviewing techniques.
51	(Hurworth, 2008)	Teaching qualitative research	Discusses case studies and issues in teaching qualitative research methods.
52	(Kapoor et al., 2018)	Social media research	Reviews advances in social media research and its impact on information systems.
53	(Khoa et al., 2023)	Qualitative research in social sciences	Explores data collection, analysis, and report writing in qualitative social research.
54	(Kilburn et al., 2014)	Pedagogical culture in research methods	Investigates the development of a pedagogical culture for teaching social science research methods.
55	(Kline, 2023)	Structural equation modeling	Discusses the principles and practices of Structural Equation Modeling (SEM).
56	(Kluge, 2000)	Typology construction in qualitative research	Focuses on empirically grounded construction of types and typologies in qualitative research.
57	(Lee, 2023)	Entrepreneurship for development	Analyzes the rise of global ‘entrepreneurship for development’ agendas and their implications.
58	(Levin, 2013)	Research knowledge use	Explores the role of research knowledge and its application in educational practices.
59	(Lewis & Dehler, 2000)	Learning through paradox	Examines the use of paradox as a pedagogical strategy for exploring contradictions in management education.
60	(Lewis-Beck, 1994)	Introduction to typologies	Provides an introduction to classification techniques, focusing on typologies and taxonomies.
61	(Lewthwaite & Nind, 2016)	Teaching research methods	Discusses expert perspectives on pedagogy and practice in teaching social science research methods.
62	(Lucas & Claxton, 2013)	Pedagogic leadership	Focuses on the role of pedagogic leadership in creating outstanding vocational learning practices.
63	(Luff et al., 2015)	Typology of research methods	Reviews the typology of research methods in social sciences and their implications for pedagogy.
64	(Lunsford et al., 2013)	Mentoring in higher education	Investigates the costs of mentoring in higher education faculty and its implications for institutional practices.
65	(Luttwak, 2001)	Strategy theory	Explores the logic of peace and war in strategic decision-making.
66	(Meyer & Land, 2005)	Threshold concepts in education	Discusses the concept of threshold concepts in higher education and their impact on learning.
67	(Nind et al., 2016)	Research methods pedagogy	Examines research methods for pedagogy and the development of pedagogical knowledge in social sciences.
68	(Nind & Lewthwaite, 2018a)	Pedagogic research methods	Discusses methods that teach and the development of pedagogy in research methods education.
69	(Nind & Lewthwaite, 2018b)	Inclusive pedagogy in research methods	Explores inclusive pedagogy in teaching social science research methods and its challenges.
70	(Nind et al., 2015)	Teaching social research methods	Examines developments in pedagogical knowledge for teaching social research methods.
71	(Nind et al., 2014)	Video and dialogue in pedagogy	Investigates the use of video and dialogue to enhance pedagogic knowledge in social research methods education.
72	(Olssen, 2006)	Foucault’s materialism	Explores the materialist interpretations of education through Foucault’s theories.
73	(Ott & Longnecker, 2010)	Statistical methods in research	Provides an introduction to statistical methods and data analysis in scientific research.
74	(Perry & Paterson, 2005)	Nursing rounds pedagogy	Examines the use of nursing rounds as a pedagogical strategy in gerontological nursing education.
75	(Polanyi, 1958)	Post-critical philosophy	Discusses Polanyi’s philosophy and its implications for the social sciences and education.
76	(Ponterotto & Reynolds, 2017)	Ethical considerations in psychobiography	Explores the ethical and legal considerations in psychobiographical research.
77	(Rao & Stupans, 2012)	Role play in education	Discusses the potential of role play as a pedagogical tool in higher education.
78	(Rix & Twining, 2007)	Education systems typology	Explores typologies for future learning systems and their implications for educational practices.
79	(Ryle, 1949)	Philosophy of mind	Provides an exploration of Ryle’s views on the concept of mind in the context of philosophy.
80	(Saldaña, 2016)	Coding in qualitative research	Offers a manual for coding qualitative data and its implications for researchers.
81	(Salmon, 2005)	E-learning framework	Discusses strategic frameworks for e-learning and pedagogical innovation in higher education.
82	(Sellar, 2009)	Pedagogy of uncertainty	Explores the responsible uncertainty in pedagogy and its implications for educational research.
83	(Silver & Woolf, 2015)	CAQDAS pedagogy	Investigates the development of the Five-Level QDA as a CAQDAS pedagogy for qualitative data analysis.
84	(Stake, 2000)	Case study research	Explores the art of case study research and its application in social sciences.
85	(Stratton, 2021)	Convenience sampling strategies	Discusses strategies for population research, focusing on convenience sampling.
86	(Taber, 2018)	Cronbach’s alpha in research	Analyzes the use of Cronbach’s alpha in developing and reporting research instruments in science education.
87	(Wagner et al., 2011)	Teaching research methods	Discusses the state of the art of teaching research methods in the social sciences.
88	(Wild et al., 2017)	Statistical inference	Examines accessible conceptions of statistical inference in research and education.

The integration of mixed-methods research represents a significant milestone in the evolution of research design. Mixed-methods approaches combine the strengths of quantitative and qualitative techniques, enabling researchers to address complex research questions that require both breadth and depth. Studies reviewed in this literature highlight the flexibility of mixed-methods designs in adapting to diverse research contexts, such as health, education, and community development. For instance, Dawadi et al. (2021) discuss the use of explanatory sequential designs to explore the impact of educational interventions, where quantitative data is used to assess outcomes, followed by qualitative data to understand contextual factors influencing those outcomes. Similarly, convergent parallel designs have been employed in studies examining the intersection of technology and social behavior, allowing researchers to triangulate findings and enhance the validity of their conclusions.

Technological advancements have had a profound impact on research design in social sciences, expanding the scope and scale of data collection, analysis, and dissemination. Digital tools, such as online surveys, social media analytics, and geographic information systems (GIS), have transformed the way researchers engage with data. Studies reviewed in this literature underscore the potential of these tools to generate large-scale, real-time data, offering unprecedented opportunities for understanding social dynamics. For example, Kapoor et al. (2018) discuss the strategic use of social media analytics in marketing research, highlighting the ability of digital platforms to capture consumer behavior and preferences on a global scale. Similarly, Choi et al. (2023) explore the use of digital frameworks for assessing web credibility, illustrating the integration of computational techniques in social research. Despite these advancements, challenges related to data privacy, representation, and ethical considerations remain prominent, necessitating the development of robust ethical frameworks to guide research practices.

The emphasis on ethical considerations has grown significantly in recent years, reflecting the evolving societal expectations and regulatory landscapes surrounding research practices. Ethical concerns in social science research extend beyond traditional issues of informed consent and confidentiality, encompassing broader questions of power dynamics, representation, and inclusivity. The reviewed studies highlight the importance of participatory and inclusive research designs that prioritize the voices and perspectives of marginalized groups. For instance, feminist and decolonial methodologies emphasize the need to address historical power imbalances in research relationships, advocating for collaborative and emancipatory practices. These approaches challenge researchers to critically examine their assumptions, positionality, and the potential implications of their work, fostering a culture of ethical reflexivity.

Interdisciplinary collaborations have emerged as a driving force behind methodological innovation in social sciences. The complexity of contemporary global challenges, such as climate change, public health crises, and social inequality, has necessitated the integration of diverse disciplinary perspectives. Studies reviewed in this literature illustrate the benefits of interdisciplinary research designs, which draw on methods and theories from multiple fields to address multifaceted research questions. For example, research on environmental sustainability often combines sociological insights with ecological modeling and spatial analysis, creating a holistic understanding of human-environment interactions. Similarly, public health research frequently integrates epidemiological methods with qualitative approaches to capture the lived experiences of affected populations. These interdisciplinary collaborations underscore the adaptability and relevance of social science research in addressing pressing societal issues.

The evolution of research design is also reflected in the pedagogical approaches to teaching research methods. The reviewed studies highlight the growing emphasis on experiential learning, collaborative pedagogy, and technology-enhanced teaching strategies to prepare students for the complexities of research in the 21st century. Innovative teaching practices, such as the use of role play, case studies, and virtual simulations, have been employed to bridge the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical application. For instance, Rao and Stupans (2012) discuss the potential of role play as a pedagogical tool to enhance students’ understanding of ethical dilemmas in research. Similarly, Nind et al. (2015) explore the use of video and dialogue-based methods to foster critical reflection and peer learning among research students. These approaches highlight the importance of fostering methodological literacy, critical thinking, and ethical sensitivity in the next generation of social scientists.

Despite these advancements, several challenges persist in the field of social science research design. The increasing reliance on digital tools and big data has raised concerns about the generalizability and validity of findings, particularly in contexts where access to technology is uneven. Moreover, the push for open science and transparency in research processes has highlighted tensions between academic rigor and practical feasibility. Studies reviewed in this literature underscore the need for ongoing dialogue among researchers, practitioners, and policymakers to navigate these challenges and develop innovative solutions.

The results of this review also highlight the importance of reflexivity and adaptability in research design. The evolving nature of social phenomena and the diverse contexts in which they occur require researchers to continually reassess and refine their methodological approaches. Reflexivity involves a critical examination of the researcher’s role, assumptions, and the potential impact of their work on participants and society. This practice is particularly important in qualitative research, where the co-construction of knowledge and the relational dynamics between researchers and participants are central to the research process.

The findings of this systematic literature review provide a rich and nuanced understanding of the methodological evolution in social sciences. The growing emphasis on methodological pluralism, technological integration, ethical considerations, and interdisciplinary collaborations reflects the dynamic and responsive nature of social science research. These developments have expanded the scope and relevance of research design, enabling social scientists to address complex and pressing societal challenges. However, the field continues to grapple with ethical, practical, and conceptual challenges that necessitate ongoing dialogue, innovation, and reflexivity. The insights gained from this review contribute to a deeper appreciation of the complexities and potential of research design in the social sciences, offering a foundation for future methodological advancements.

4. Discussion

The discussion of this systematic literature review focuses on synthesizing the insights gained from the results, exploring their implications, and addressing the broader significance of the findings within the landscape of social science research design. The evolving methodologies in social sciences reflect an ongoing negotiation between the demands of rigorous inquiry, ethical integrity, and the need to address complex societal challenges. The review underscores the dynamic interplay between methodological innovation, theoretical debates, and the broader socio-technological context in shaping the future of research practices.

One of the central insights from the results is the increasing adoption of methodological pluralism, which recognizes the value of combining diverse research approaches to capture the multifaceted nature of social phenomena. The integration of quantitative and qualitative methods through mixed-methods research has been particularly impactful, as it allows for a more comprehensive understanding of research questions that are multidimensional in nature (Dawadi et al., 2021). This methodological convergence responds to critiques of reductionism in purely quantitative approaches and the limitations of generalizability in qualitative research. By bridging these paradigms, mixed methods enable researchers to triangulate data, enhance validity, and provide richer insights into social processes. This approach reflects a pragmatic turn in social sciences, where the utility and applicability of methods are prioritized over rigid adherence to specific paradigms (Creswell and Poth, 2016).

The role of technology in reshaping research design cannot be overstated. Advances in digital tools have opened new avenues for data collection, analysis, and dissemination, fundamentally transforming how researchers engage with their subjects and the broader public. Social media analytics, online surveys, and machine learning algorithms offer unprecedented opportunities to capture large-scale and real-time data (Kapoor et al., 2018). However, these advancements also bring ethical dilemmas, particularly concerning data privacy, consent, and the equitable representation of diverse populations. The tension between leveraging technological potential and adhering to ethical principles highlights the need for robust frameworks to guide digital research. The application of regulations like the GDPR (2016) illustrates a growing commitment to addressing these concerns, yet the rapid pace of technological change continues to challenge traditional ethical paradigms.

Ethical considerations have become a cornerstone of contemporary research design, reflecting a broader societal shift toward inclusivity and social justice. Participatory and emancipatory methodologies, such as feminist and decolonial approaches, challenge researchers to critically examine their positionality and the power dynamics inherent in the research process (Lewthwaite and Nind, 2016). These methodologies emphasize collaboration with participants, treating them as co-creators of knowledge rather than subjects of study. This shift aligns with calls for greater reflexivity in social sciences, where researchers are encouraged to be transparent about their biases, assumptions, and the potential implications of their work. Reflexivity not only enhances the credibility of research but also fosters a more ethical and inclusive practice, ensuring that marginalized voices are adequately represented.

Interdisciplinary collaborations have emerged as a critical driver of methodological innovation, particularly in addressing complex global challenges. The integration of social science perspectives with fields such as environmental science, public health, and technology reflects a growing recognition of the interconnectedness of societal issues. For example, research on climate change often combines sociological insights with ecological modeling to understand human-environment interactions, while studies on public health crises incorporate epidemiological methods alongside qualitative approaches to capture the lived experiences of affected communities (Lee, 2023). These interdisciplinary endeavors demonstrate the adaptability and relevance of social science research, yet they also raise questions about the challenges of integrating diverse methodologies and epistemologies. Navigating these challenges requires a commitment to collaboration, mutual respect, and a shared vision for addressing societal needs.

The pedagogical implications of methodological evolution are also significant. As social science research becomes increasingly complex and interdisciplinary, the training of future researchers must adapt accordingly. The reviewed literature highlights the importance of experiential and collaborative learning approaches in teaching research methods (Nind et al., 2015). Role play, case studies, and technology-enhanced learning environments offer practical opportunities for students to engage with real-world research challenges, fostering critical thinking and methodological literacy. These pedagogical innovations not only prepare students to navigate the complexities of contemporary research but also cultivate ethical sensitivity and reflexivity, essential traits for responsible social scientists.

While the methodological advancements highlighted in this review offer numerous benefits, they also present challenges that warrant critical reflection. The increasing reliance on digital tools raises concerns about the accessibility and inclusivity of research, particularly in contexts where technological infrastructure is limited. Additionally, the push for open science and transparency, while commendable, introduces practical and ethical tensions, such as the potential for misinterpretation of open-access data or the exploitation of marginalized groups (Besançon et al., 2020). These challenges underscore the need for a balanced approach that embraces innovation while remaining attuned to ethical considerations and the broader societal impact of research.

The discussion also emphasizes the importance of reflexivity and adaptability in the face of evolving research landscapes. The dynamic nature of social phenomena and the diverse contexts in which they occur demand a flexible and responsive approach to research design. Reflexivity involves critically examining the researcher’s role, assumptions, and potential influence on the research process, ensuring that methodological choices are contextually appropriate and ethically sound (Bourdieu, 1992). This practice is particularly relevant in qualitative research, where the co-construction of knowledge between researchers and participants is central to the inquiry.

The findings of this review highlight the transformative impact of methodological evolution on social science research. The increasing adoption of mixed methods, the integration of digital tools, the emphasis on ethical and participatory practices, and the rise of interdisciplinary collaborations reflect a field that is continually adapting to the complexities of the modern world. These developments not only enrich the scope and depth of social science research but also underscore the importance of methodological rigor, ethical reflexivity, and collaborative engagement. As social sciences continue to evolve, the commitment to these principles will be essential in addressing the pressing challenges of the 21st century and beyond.

5. Conclusion

The methodological evolution of research design in social sciences represents a profound journey marked by adaptability, innovation, and responsiveness to the complexities of human behavior and societal structures. This review has underscored the transformative impact of shifting epistemological paradigms, technological advancements, ethical imperatives, and interdisciplinary collaborations on the practice of social science research. The transition from a predominantly positivist framework to a more inclusive and pluralistic methodological landscape demonstrates the discipline’s capacity to reflect and respond to its own limitations and to the demands of a changing world. This ongoing evolution highlights the significance of methodological pluralism as a means to capture the multifaceted nature of social phenomena (Creswell and Poth, 2016). By integrating quantitative and qualitative approaches, researchers have embraced complexity and enriched the scope of inquiry, enabling a more nuanced understanding of diverse research questions.

The integration of digital technologies has redefined research possibilities, offering unprecedented tools for data collection and analysis while simultaneously presenting new ethical challenges. Digital methods have expanded the reach and scale of social science research, yet they necessitate rigorous ethical considerations regarding data privacy, consent, and representation (Kapoor et al., 2018). This duality underscores the need for ongoing dialogue and the development of robust frameworks to balance innovation with ethical integrity. Similarly, the rise of participatory and inclusive methodologies has signaled a critical shift toward addressing power imbalances in research, emphasizing collaboration and the representation of marginalized voices (Lewthwaite and Nind, 2016). These approaches reinforce the importance of reflexivity and positionality, challenging researchers to critically evaluate their roles and the broader implications of their work.

Interdisciplinary collaborations have emerged as a hallmark of contemporary social science research, reflecting the interconnectedness of global challenges and the need for integrative solutions. By drawing on diverse disciplinary perspectives, researchers have developed innovative methodologies that transcend traditional boundaries and address complex societal issues, such as climate change, public health, and social inequality (Lee, 2023). These collaborations exemplify the adaptability and relevance of social sciences in responding to pressing global concerns, while also highlighting the challenges of navigating epistemological diversity and methodological integration.

Despite these advancements, the field continues to face significant challenges, including issues of accessibility, the ethical implications of open science, and the complexities of methodological innovation in diverse contexts. Addressing these challenges requires a balanced approach that prioritizes both rigor and inclusivity, ensuring that research design remains adaptable and responsive to evolving societal needs. The emphasis on teaching and training in research methods further underscores the importance of preparing future researchers to navigate these complexities with methodological literacy, ethical sensitivity, and critical reflexivity (Nind et al., 2015).

The evolution of research design in social sciences reflects a discipline in constant dialogue with itself and the world it seeks to understand. This dynamic process has enriched the field, providing powerful tools and frameworks for exploring the complexities of human and societal behavior. As social sciences continue to evolve, a commitment to methodological innovation, ethical responsibility, and interdisciplinary collaboration will be essential in addressing the challenges and opportunities of the future. The insights gained from this review serve as a foundation for advancing research practices, ensuring that social sciences remain a vital and transformative force in understanding and shaping the modern world.