Prerpints.org logo
Preprint
Article

This version is not peer-reviewed.

Unsustainable: Colonial Imprints upon the Food and Habitat Conditions (Environs) of “Others”

Submitted:

13 August 2024

Posted:

14 August 2024

You are already at the latest version

Abstract
Sustainability is a concept which engages the weighted balance between economic, environmental and social domains for all life forms and man. Within the frame of sustainability, it is important to realize that coexistence is part of a single life equation. Damage to the environment, social spectrum, and economic sectors (through deviant practices) reap havoc upon all life forms. Sustainability insures the existence of all within the single equation of life. Unsustainable, colonial practices prevail upon the present and the future of life.Sustainability should advocate for healthy environs for all life forms (including, but not exclusive to humans) to sustain themselves. The neglect and/or omission of concern for this mandate will lead to the deuteriation and eventual expiration of any such life forms. Life cannot be sustained in an imposed, artificial domain which is suited solely for mercantile purposes. History has taught us that the cost of dismissing the errors of the past and forging on results in error. This article proposes to explore the impact of the exploitation of agricultural practices, food availability, deforestation, dislocation, and "voluntary tourism" upon "Others" stemming from colonial occupation.
Keywords: 
Agricultural practices
;  
food availability
;  
deforestation
;  
dislocation
;  
"voluntary tourism" upon "Others" stemming from colonial occupation
Subject: 
Environmental and Earth Sciences  -   Environmental Science

Introduction

Sustainability is a concept which engages the weighted balance between economic, environmental and social domains for all life forms and man. Within the frame of sustainability, it is important to realize that coexistence is part of a single life equation. Damage to the environment, social spectrum, and economic sectors (through deviant practices) reap havoc upon all life forms. Sustainability insures the existence of all within the single equation of life. Unsustainable, colonial practices prevail upon the present and the future of life.
Sustainability should advocate for healthy environs for all life forms (including, but not exclusive to humans) to sustain themselves. The neglect and/or omission of concern for this mandate will lead to the deuteriation and eventual expiration of any such life forms. Life cannot be sustained in an imposed, artificial domain which is suited solely for mercantile purposes. History has taught us that the cost of dismissing the errors of the past and forging on results in error.

Unsustainable: Transatlantic Forced Migration/Dislocation

The Transatlantic Slave Trade was the largest forced migration/dislocation in history.1 The process and result of such an undertaking was not in the interest of the sustainability of any life form or human. Over two million Africans died during the Middle Passage to the Americas.2 A capitalist campaign of this caliber had just one focus— profit through human exploitation. The success of such an operation became the prototype for replication by future capitalists. The period of dislocation commenced in 1400’s and did not end until the late 1800’s (theoretically). Ironically, imitators of the Transatlantic Slave Trade proved to be equally successful because of international apathy on the subject genocidal acts against those deemed to be “Others” (Whitman, J. Hitlers American Model: The United States and the Making of the Nazi Race Law, 2017). The legacy of colonialism facilitates engines for the dislocation of peoples. As a consequence of such crimes, dislocated populations find it difficult to sustain themselves in imposed environs which fail to provide suitable food, shelter, and familiar social and cultural habitats. The environs that the enslaved and indentured are forced to live within, generally, are insanitary and there is no availability of the foods familiar to indigenous to the peoples. The lack of sustainable sustenance and insanitary conditions contributes to an imbalance which results in the poor quality of life, health, and eventual death of African, American Indian, Caribbean, and Asian populations in the colonial past and today’s present. Indeed, the colonial past continues to impact upon current practices of unsustainability.

Unsustainable: Colonial Deforestation and Agricultural Miseducation

Colonial powers sow seeds only to reap “cash crops” for profit. Colonized lands offer virgin soil, landscapes, and terrains in comparison to those previously ravaged in the homelands of the colonizers. Indigenous, agricultural domains are robbed of their fertility and mineral wealth by colonists. Ancestral farming practices which respected the lands and the people are discarded by colonialists. The cash crops introduced to the colonial lands exploit the richness of the earth. As a result, the sustainable balance between natural between the economic, environmental, and social domains become destabilized. All life forms experience a devaluation and regression because of the prioritizing profit over sustainability. Animals (deer, buffalos in America, cattle in the Sudan, reindeer in Sweden) lose grazing lands, and birds lose habitats with the introduction of cash crops. Irrigation is diverted to, solely, facilitate the nurturing of mercantile crops. The result is that nutritional food sources for enslaved humans become unavailable. For example, the unsustainable becomes the norm and indigenous terrains, crops, animals, and humans lose their bases in seized by succession in the Sudanese domain. 3

Unsustainable: Colonial (Imposed) Diet in Caribbean Spheres

Blacks enslaved, Whites indentured, and Asians under the yoke of predatory contracts became the workforce for the plantations in the Americas. 4A just life span was unsustainable given the intolerable conditions of the work force in the Caribbean. Insanitary conditions and the vulnerability (of the newly arrived) to infections and aliments acted to reduce the life expectancy of all. 5 The work in plantations was hard and ruthless timetables were imposed upon the workers to complete tasks. The diet imposed upon the indentured and enslaved was meager in nutrition and quantity.6 It is to be noted that foods rationed to the enslaved and indentured were high in salt and low in nutritional value. Prolonged periods of subjection to such diets leads to health issues which prevail to the present among the descendants of the involuntary workers.7 The ability to sow and reap nutritional foods became hampered by the restrictions imposed by the colonizers (scant land appropriations for slaves to grow their own food) with the prioritization of cash crops (tobacco, coffee, cocoa, sugar, and rice) over sustainable crops. The policies of the past haunt the present and the legacy of unsustainable practices prevails. 8 Current agricultural threats upon lands persist until this day because of the invasion from external entities and “cash crops.9”

Unsustainable: Colonial (Imposed) Dietary Practices in Early America

The cash crops of early America were sugar (early stages), tobacco, rice, indigo, of course cotton (later stages) of plantation installations. Slave labor proved the most cost-effective means to derive the most profit from the cheapest labor. The original workers, Native American Indians, could not or would not endure the merciless conditions on plantations. In addition, many American Indians died from the diseases introduced into their habitat by the colonists. Indentured Whites, from the West, were vulnerable to the harsh climate and stressful working conditions of plantation life. Africans proved to be better suited to the demands and conditions of plantation life. Tragically, the food rations provided to slaves was high in salt, carbohydrates, low in protein and vitamins.
The crops and foods readily available in African countries were guinea corn, yams, and okra were not readily accessible in the Americas, as stated by the famed Equiano in 1789).10 These foods were nutrimental for the people and readily available. Pork and maize were the rations appropriated to slaves on American plantations. Primary allocations of pork and maize into one’s diet fail to meet the nutrimental requirements for a healthy human being. Traditionally, pork remains a part of the diet of African Americans today and it contributes to a wide variety of health issues. The maize allocated to the slaves and indentured was low in protein and required an additional supplementation to be of nutritionally credible.11 It is to be noted that a common use of maize, by farmers, focused upon it being a food source for livestock (cattle and sheep). Ironically, slaves were ranked as livestock by many plantation owners. Livestock such as cattle or sheep needed only to be sustained for short periods before they were slaughtered or sent to market. Again, there is an irony regarding the colonial sustainable practices for animals and the enslaved or indentured. May current “Other” populations still be marginalized in similar frames.
Contemporary, poor diets, of urban dwellers remains fixed in the same pattern. Impoverished, poor, and in marginalized habitats are exiled into “food deserts” in ghetto neighborhoods. This current issue is to be examined later in this paper.

Unsustainable: Colonial (Imposed) Mercantile Practices in India

Sir James Lancaster was a founder of the East India Company. The company breeched the duopoly that Spain and Portugal held over spice commodities. England eventually dominated. War, internal rivalry, severe taxation of the people, and the monopolies upon grain, famine became catalysts for a subsistence crisis. 12
Havoc in India’s indigenous politics, culture and agriculture was engineered by the British. Sponsored unethical business practices, in India, favored mercantile interests. The unsustainable became the norm. The trade of cotton and the Empire of Cotton destroyed the indigenous balance of agriculture in India. Indeed, it is be acknowledged that many Indian rulers acted in concert with the British for their own gain. Colonial British enterprises sought to acquire land for the purpose of cash crops. The act of doing so was ruthless and sanctioned by the Indian Land Acquisition Act of 1894).13 In order to facilitate mercantile endeavors crops such as “Jute in Bengal, tea in Assam, sugarcane in Uttar Pradesh, wheat in Punjab, cotton in Maharashtra and Punjab, rice in Madras” were prioritized by the British 14. The poor, Indian former was being detached from his land and the ability to cultivate crops to feed his family and the wider community through the rampant, colonial enterprises. Sustainability was not a major concern. The diet of the indigenous people suffered.
Karl Marx recognized the “destruction of the self-sufficient village society of India” through capitalist endeavors. Poor farmers succumbed to colonial investors. Villages succumbed to famine and most lost control of what they earned and produced. India yielded to colonial unsustainability.15

Unsustainable: The legacy of Colonial Deforestation as a Facet of Unsustainable Practices

Brazil
The earth’s rainforests have the distinction of being primary in the maintaining the balance of our ecosystem. Brazil’s Amazon rainforest is famed for being the first “lungs of the earth.” Africa’s Congo has the distinction of being the second “lungs of the earth.” The encroachment of mercantile lumbering is imposing a great threat upon all life. The diminishing absorption of carbon dioxide on the planet can be connected to the loss of Amazon forest. The world has a for appetite for beef. 16 Cattle need grazing lands over forestry. In addition, the new “cash crop,” soy propels the destruction of South America’s forest in favor of pastures for grazing and fields for planting of soy crops are reason for worry. The crisis in South America is unsustainable 17
Sweden
The Oppression and cultural genocidal practices against Sweden’s Sami indigenous people
Colonial powers often instigate actions against peoples internationally as well as domestically. The hunger for profit is insatiable in many mercantile circles. Sami lands are very valuable. Sami lands extend to Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Russia. The enormous scope of Sami territories may have rendered such a group vulnerable to subjugation and exploitation across several nations vying to usurp their lands. Also, Native Sami suffered heavy taxation upon their lands. This particular colonial practice began in 1898 as means to stifle the continuation of Sami-Can life.18 The unsustainable, colonial legacy of outlawing the language and the stigmatization of the people as “Other” is a common practice. There are many sinister means of acquiring or separating peoples from what is desired by industry. Taxation, as a means of forcing dislocation and eliminating the ancestral of the Gullah people in the Low Country of North America.19 The Sami people have protested the deforestation of their lands because such practices inhibit the herding of reindeer.

Central America: The Guna People and the Fight against the Impact of Colonial Unsustainability

The Guna are the people of Colombia and Panama are the original inhabitants of their homelands (300 – plus islands. 20 Marginalized to reservations, the Guna, must be recognized for having survived colonial aspirations by the Kingdom of Scotland. A Scottish colony was established in the Guna province. The plan was the Darien Scheme of the 1690’s.21 But the colonists fell victim to famine, poor planning and divided Scottish mercantile parties. Spain’s intervention only complicated Scotland’s plans and the surviving Scottish colonists were barely able to return home.22 Surviving many of the issues of colonialism, the Guna people were minimally independent. However, global warming, the result of industrial nations threaten the sanctuary of the Guna provinces.
Relocation may be the only recourse for the people. Yet, how sustainable is Guna language(s) and culture under the yoke of colonial site? Records indicate that similar relocations of peoples have not proved to successful.23

Unsustainable: The Exclusive Colonial Tourism Industry in Massai Territories

Voluntary tourism for many Third World countries is often presented as a means of economic sustainability for indigenous peoples. However, it the enterprises are guided by external “colonial parties.” Issues have arisen when tourism becomes a new “cash crop” and the indigenous peoples are driven out or dislocated to further tourist “needs”. 24 Kenya’s Massi people are subjected to “Sustainable tourism”( the term that is referred to describe the conservation practice). However, the hunting of animals by Westerners for the purpose of the rich to display the carcasses in their elaborate homes is not beneficial for the Massai. 25 There is an unsustainable land grab occurring in Kenya. Rare animals are hunted and killed in an environment which is not sustainable for all life forms. Yet, the losses are not being accounted for by the colonial guardians of the tourist trade. Once again, the losses were not being accounted for the situation is unsustainable.

Unsustainable Colonial Deforestation Practices in the Congo Basin (Tanzania)

The Congo Basin has suffered an alarming rate of deforestation which contributes to unsustainability in terms of global health. Second only to the Amazon, in terms of aiding in stabilizing the “lungs of the earth,” there stands the Congo Basin.26 In the Congo, tribes are experiencing forced eviction from ancestral lands. In Tanzania, violent forced relocation has facilitated external forces in the service of deforestation, agriculture, and water ecology 27. All life forms, in addition, are endangered. The populous of the Congo Basin is dependent upon their agricultural habitat for food, nutrition, and health.28 In addition, seventy percent of Africa’s forest and 25 percent of the world’s carbon can be resourced in the Congo basin. But, the value of this area is noted by mercantile sources. The indigenous peoples of the underdeveloped world are always vulnerable to prey.
The slave trade and exportation of humans lead to the underdevelopment of the African agricultural ethos. Entire African tribes were discriminated through tribal battles and wars to conquer and capture hostages to be sold to European traders. Small farmers suffered irreputable damage as the balance between the environment, the social spectrum, and the economics became frayed. The cash crops dominated over sustainable produce. In the post-slave trade period, there was the “dynamic, interactive effect upon geography, trade, and colonialism in the context of Africa’s structural change from the slave trades to export agriculture.“ 29
The indentured, Africans, and East Indians were enslaved to work in the Americas on commercial plantations. Conditions on plantations were so harsh that the life span of a slave was 26 years. A slave would survive no more than seven years on the plantation. 30 The indentured (Whites) were disposed from United Kingdom shores ( Mahoney, M. “Irish Indentured Labour in the Caribbean” (The National Archives, 11 March 2013,).31 East Indians, indentured between 1838 (or1845) and 1917, were forcibly relocated to serve on plantations in Trinidad, Tobago, Guyana, Grenada, Jamaica, St. Kitts, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, and Belize. Some East Indians were seduced by the promise of good wages to fund a better life upon return to India. East Indian women were vulnerable to false promises as well. 32

Unsustainable: Colonial, Agricultural Practices in Africa et. al

The slave trade and exportation of humans lead to the underdevelopment of the African agricultural ethos. Entire African tribes were discriminated through tribal battles and wars to conquer and capture hostages to be sold to European traders. Small farmers suffered irreputable damage as the balance between the environment, the social spectrum, and the economics became frayed. The cash crops dominated. In the post-slave trade period, there was the “dynamic, interactive effect upon geography, trade and colonialism in the context of Africa’s structural change from the slave trades to export agriculture.” 33
The edict and mandate of colonial, plantation farmers focused upon fully exhausting and extinguishing the indigenous and imported slave populations for the purpose of redeeming the highest profit from crops. Cheap, indentured and slave populations suffered brutality and experienced shortened life spans because of the colonial quest for higher capital gains.
Postmodern, indigenous, urban populations are often red-lined into “food wastelands.” 34 As a result, the inhabitants of these communities experience limited access to fresh produce, fish, and meats. Yet, fast food enterprises saturate the red-lined communities with offerings of tasteless, salty, sugar laced goods which contribute to high blood pressure, heart disease, diabetes, organ failure and premature death. In addition, the impoverished communities grapple with mold infestation, rodents, and crumbling interior and exterior walls. The quality of life of the Indigenous and “Other” populations remains a low priority. Favor is bestowed upon capitalist businesses (fast food chains) and the exhaustion of those incarcerated within poverty areas. Colonial manifestations are rooted in those practices which impede sustainability among humans and surroundings environmental domains.

Unsustainable: Colonial Practices against Native Americans

In the early stages of forced migration in the United States, many American Indians were forced to abdicate from their rights to tribal lands. Many tribes such as the Osage peoples were coerced into secede their homeland(s), in 1825, by American settlers (Burns, 2010). Other Native American tribes suffered similar, but more inhumane, expulsions to come. Between 1830 and 1850, the warped into the “Trial of Tears” forced migration of the Five Civilized tribes commenced (PBS “Indian Removal”). Opportunists sought the lands for raising cattle. farming, and extending land boundaries for the advancing of American states. Unsustainable damage to all life forms was experienced. The American buffalos were nearly extinct due to “sport” hunting and the desire to exterminate the buffalos to allow for the main source of food for Indians to be lost.
In the book (2022) and film The Killing of the Flower Moon: The Osage Murders and the Birth of the FBI (2023), the issues of genocide and unsustainable lifestyles are illustrated. The Osage people were being murdered because of greed generated by the immense wealth (of the tribe) derived from the oil on their lands. In addition, the wealth of the people permitted them to indulge in unsustainable diets which conflicted with the natural diet of the past. Diabetes became an issue. Alcoholism became an issue.35 The “Western” foods and drinking habits were not compatible with the nature of the people. As a result, life spans were shortened naturally or unnaturally either because of Western, dietary influences and/or Western greed.
Traditional American Indian cultural life and religion respected the mutual dependency of man upon nature and nature upon man. Indeed, American Indians sought to reduce the “carbon imprint” of man upon nature to ensure keeping the nature balance of nature. Land was shared and the belief that no man could “own” land because land was bestowed by the Great Spirit. Colonial powers did not foster this belief.
Indians were forced to “concentration camp” style dwellings. Children were forced to go to boarding schools where their education could be controlled and Native culture and language repressed. Western thought, colonial culture and history were elevated to superior status.
The colonial practice of repression against American Indian life was almost industrial in the execution of theories which negated the life of all forms non-colonial and non-White. Unsustainable damage to the landscape, lives and culture of Native American peoples is ongoing to this day. Deforestation is, also, detachment from every limb and fiber from the consciousness of that which is not endorsed by the colonial platform.

Unsustainable: “Food Deserts “of Colonial Roots in (Contemporary) African American Habitats

Access to nutrimental food in many Black areas remains a challenge. There appears to be a more orchestrated availability of providing sole access to fast food chains than access to supermarkets to the residents. One may question the reason why there are so many poor food choices exist in Black areas as opposed to White areas of cities.36 A consequence of the limited access to healthy foods is poor health.37 Yet, in marginalized habitats, there is limited access to health care to remedy the ravages of a lifetime of poor diet. 38Predatory medical organizations may profit from the ill health of many of the those living in depressed communities. Mercantile policies act in operation to meet their own needs. Dialysis centers thrive in poor, Black communities in America in contrast to centers for preventative health care. 39
In economically challenged, urban zones in America there are “food deserts”. These are places where supermarkets will not develop services because of the income poverty in these areas. Residents are without access to fresh food. Unlike the UK, in America access to fresh foods are restricted, prices are not cheap, but affordability is not the main problem. The economically challenged are the worst paid, therefore many must work two or more jobs to maintain families. Time is of the essence for these individuals. Those who work minimum waged jobs have little time for thought after a lengthy workday. Processed foods appear to be the solution. Chips and other snacks fill the gap and the stomach of deprived children until meals can be acquired or arranged. Processed foods and snacks are high in sodium and low in nutrition. And a diet void of nutritional ingredients renders one vulnerable to developing high blood pressure, obesity, diabetes, eye disorders, and possible premature death in adulthood. May the design of such communities be one that facilities the poor health of the residents and eventual death? After all, the sentencing of the inhabitants of “food desserts” may be a direct result of “red-ling.”[i]

Unsustainable: “Food Deserts” with Origins of (Contemporary) Colonial Roots in the UK

The Times Sunday (8 July 2024) contained in the magazine edition, a cover page devoted to England’s “amour” with fried chicken. This love or worship with “fowl” fails to recognize the fact selective placement prompts farmers to breed larger birds with larger birds. But when the state of the chickens become bigger and fatter the birds suffer. This state is not humanely sustainable for the birds because their legs cannot support the larger bodies. As a result, the birds are immobile and cannot enjoy “free range.” Colonial practices often operate in favor of profit and not for the health of life forms. One wonders if there may be an issue for children constantly consuming artificially bred chicken that later progresses to be treated by over processing, unhealthfully fried, and served up. The areas where “fast chicken” is most likely to be in abundance are in UK areas deemed (possibly) as “food deserts.”
There is estimated to be 1.2 million people, in the UK, living in food deserts. These areas include people without the means to afford fresh food and vegetables.40 Commonly, fast food venues are readily available and profitable to the public in such areas. Hard working people often do not have access to stores which sell healthy food. Many elderly people cannot get to alternative food marts too. People resort to easily accessible fast food venues.41 There appears to be an issue with price, as opposed to accessibility, in terms of food sustainability in the UK. Fresh fruits and vegetables can be availed at open markets, supermarkets, and in regular stores in the United Kingdom. However, the prices of such goods may be too high for the economically challenged customers. There is availability of over-processed foods and cheap snacks. These foods are not sustainable for those seeking a healthy diet. Overly processed foods and snacks contain excessive amounts of sodium, preservatives, and few nutritional elements for humans. Some chain supermarkets stock only processed foods. The price of these goods is much lower and the economically challenged see these “quick” and packaged food solutions as an alternative to shopping and cooking daily. Continuous shopping throughout the week is a challenge for the “lower paid” workers because these workers have little time. The issues of childcare and lengthy working hours impede families from having the time to prepare full meals from “scratch.” Chicken fingers, chicken bites, and chicken drumsticks are favored by mothers as an easier means of feeding children. The choice may not be the best---but there are few economical and timely alternatives.
Still, the negative impact from the consumption of overly processed foods may surface in the desperate need for additional health resources in the UK. The continuation of the mass consumption of foods which are devoid of nutritional value will hasten the need for medical aid in the coming years. Yet, the reality is that England’s NHS (Nation Health Service) is underserving the people. The NHS is underfunded and stretched beyond reason. The NHS is in crisis, cancer, diabetes, heart disease, and dementia are some of the health issues which are confronting a financially “strapped” health care system in the UK. Life for many vulnerable UK citizens is becoming unsustainable.42

Resolve

Processing the historical patterns of land marginalization (for mercantile purposes), food production, food limitation, and food weaponization (as means of depriving a people of food essentials); one is led to several conclusions. People are vulnerable to the unsustainable when colonial parties control that which is essential to all life forms and humans. Sustainability, in terms of agricultures, food heritage, and land heritage is not a given “right.” The liberty to obtain proper, sustainable nourishment may be subverted by capitalistic/colonial enterprises. Colonialism has sought to and succeeded in dominating the allocation of lands, food production, and accessibility for centuries. Sustainability is not a free entity.
The Middle Passage was an infinitely successful endeavor to move, marginalize, and harness the lives of “Others” for Western, mercantile purposes. The economic success of the West was financed by the exploitation of Africa.
Yet, the legacy of capitalistic, colonial endeavors which undermine the sustainability of “Others” is continuous. In America and England, “food deserts” exist in impoverished neighborhoods lacking access to grocers and supermarkets. Yet. mercantile fast-food establishments flourish in poor neighborhoods and reap immense profits from the people which suffer from the results with health impairments, as a result of deprivation. In Central America, the people are imperiled by global warming caused by external, Western industries. These same peoples may face mass relocation because of swelling water levels caused by global warming. In the Caribbean islands, the legacy of “cash crops” exists into the present day. The legacy of colonial soil deprivation over the years (from excessive “cash-crop” farming) inhibits agricultural development. In South America, deforestation threatens the ecosystem of an entire continent and the world. Animals, plants, and man are endangered by the loss of terrain. But mercantile interests are honored. In Africa, colonial tourism threatens entire tribes as people are dislocated and evicted from their homelands. Profit is prioritized over all life forms, globally. Deforestation threatens the indigenous in Sweden, as well. Sweden’s marginalized, indigenous population is persecuted in order advance the mercantile needs of capitalist opportunists.
Perhaps, the very notion of engaging in global sustainability is a form of “food orientalism” imagined by a small margin of Westerners. Sustainability is “unsustainable” if capitalistic, colonial enterprisers prioritize their needs over man and all life forms.

References

  1. “BBC, “The transatlantic slave trade overview,” https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/topics/z2qj6sg/articles/zfkfn9q#z3jbvwx, My Bitesize, BBC, 2024, retrieved 14/07/2024.
  2. Digital History, “The Middle Passage,” Digital History, https://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtid=2&psid=446#:~:text=At%20least%202%20million%20Africans,or%20during%20the%20Middle%20Passage, 2021, retrieved 26/07/2024.
  3. USAID from the American people, “Landlinks Sudan”, https://www.land-links.org/country-profile/sudan/, retrieved 02/08/2024.
  4. Kempadoo, Kamala, ‘Bound Coolies’ and Other Indentured Workers in the Indentured Workers in the Caribbean: Implications for debates about human trafficking and modern slavery,” retrieved 26/07/2024.
  5. Handler, JS, “Diseases and Medical Disabilities of Enslaved Barbadians from the Seventh Century to around 1838 Part I,” 2008, retrieved 26/07/2024.
  6. National Museums Liverpool, https://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/diet-and-food-production-enslaved-africans, retrieved 10/07/2024.
  7. Keyes, Jazz, “Slave Foods: The Impact Of Unhealthy Eating Habits Upon The Black Community,” https://www.ebony.com/black-health-food-diet/, 18 June, 2019.
  8. National Museums Liverpool, https://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/diet-and-food-production-enslaved-africans, retrieved 27/07/2024.
  9. “Caribbean Island-Threats,” Critical Ecosystem Partnership Funds, https://www.cepf.net/our-work/biodiversity-hotspots/caribbean-islands/threats, retrieved 27/07/2024.
  10. “ Olaudah Equiano Describes His Homeland in West Africa, The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vasa, the African, 1789, Chapter 1, Excerpts,” The National Humanities Resource Center Resource Toolbox The Making of the African Identity, Vol. 1, 1500-1865, https://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/diet-and-food-production-enslaved-africans), retrieved 27/07/2024.
  11. Agricultural and Horticulture Development Board 2024, “Feeding Maize Silage to Cattle,” https://ahdb.org.uk/knowledge-library/growing-and-feeding-maize-silage#:~:text=Maize%20silage%20is%20a%20good,stages%20in%20their%20production%20cycle. retrieved 28/07/2024.
  12. Taylor and Francis Online, “The British East Indian Company and The Great Bengal Famine of 1770: Towards A Corporate Colonial Biopolitics,” https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00167428.2024.2325977.
  13. March 2024, retrieved 28/07/2024.
  14. Environment and Society Portal, “Indian land Acquisition Act,” https://www.environmentandsociety.org/tools/keywords/indian-land-acquisition-act.
  15. retrieved 28/07/2024.
  16. BYJU’S (Educational Technology Company), “Which crops did the British cultivate in India,” https://byjus.com/question-answer/what-crops-did-the-british-cultivate-in-india-teasugarcanewheatindigo-6/2023, retrieved 28/07/2024.
  17. The Pioneer, “Deforestation in India Under British Rule,” 22/09/2021, https://www.dailypioneer.com/2021/columnists/deforestation-in-india-during-british-rule.html, retrieved 14/06/2024.
  18. World Wildlife Magazine, “What Are the Biggest Drivers of Deforestation? They May Not Be What You Think,” Summer 2018, https://www.worldwildlife.org/magazine/issues/summer-2018/articles/what-are-the-biggest-drivers-of-tropical-deforestation, retrieved 28/07/2024.
  19. Monga Bay, ”Illegal deforestation rises in South America’s Indigenous territories, parks,” https://news.mongabay.com/2020/12/illegal-deforestation-rises-in-south-americas-indigenous-territories-parks/, 29/12/2020, retrieved 10/07/2024.
  20. Flack, Jess, “Hearing the Unheard I: The Sami-Can Centuries of Oppression be undone?,” The Cambridge Language Collective, https://www.thecambridgelanguagecollective.com/current-affairs/hearing-the-unheard-i-the-smi-can-centuries-of-oppression-be-undone#:~:text=However%2C%20interference%20from%20Nordic%20governments,the%20S%C3%A1mi%20of%20their%20rights, 2024, retrieved 30/07/2024.
  21. Bynum, Russ, “Slave Descendants on Georgia island fighting to keep protections that helped them to keep their land,” US News, https://apnews.com/article/gullah-geechee-georgia-sapelo-zoning-taxes-bdd34809b79edbbe01b79ee6ae50a830, 7/09/2023, retrieved 30/07/2024.
  22. Gilma, Salma, A. “Getting to Know the Guna People,”30/12/2019, https://www.expeditions.com/expedition-stories/stories/getting-to-know-the-guna-people-of-panama, retrieved 30/07/2024.
  23. Historic UK, “The Darien Scheme,” https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofScotland/The-Darien-Scheme/, retrieved 30/07/2024.
  24. Glasgow University Library, “The Darien Scheme” (Book of the Month), https://www.gla.ac.uk/myglasgow/library/files/special/exhibns/month/may2005.html, 2005, retrieved 02/08/2024.
  25. Al Jazerra Staff, “Indigenous Rights: Climate displacement threatens Indigenous Guna people in Panama: HRW,” 31/07/2023, retrieved 10/07/2024.
  26. Kamau, John, “How Kenya’s tourism is crafted on colonial image of ‘exotic Massai, https://nation.africa/kenya/news/how-kenya-s-tourism-is-crafted-on-colonial-image-of-the-exotic-maasai--4017878, Nation, 13/11/2022, retrieved 31/07/2024.
  27. Amor, Bani, “The continued displacement of the Massai shows how tourism harms more than it helps, Part I,” https://www.miamiherald.com/detour/article264165311.html.
  28. World Bank Group, “Journey into the Congo Basin-The Lungs of Africa and Beating Heart of the World,” 24/10/2022, retrieved 11/07/2024.
  29. Cordell, Denis, “Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing in Republic of the Congo in Economy,” https://www.britannica.com/place/Republic-of-the-Congo/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing, Britannica, 29/07/2024, retrieved 01/08/2024.
  30. Aquilas, Nkwetta, Mykong, A.,Kimengsi, J., and Ngongnchi, F. ,”Economic Activities and Deforestation in the Congo Basin: An Environmental Kuznets curve framework analysis,” ScienceDirect, Vol.8, 08/2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2022.100553.
  31. Roessler, Philip, Pengi, Y., Marty, R., Titlow, K., Van de Walle, N., “The Cash Crop Revolution, Colonialism, and Legacies of Spatial Inequality: Evidence from Africa,” CSAE Working Paper Series 2020-12, Center for the Study of African Economics, University of Oxford., retrieved 08/01/2024.
  32. Jackson. Candace, “What is Redling?,” https://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/17/realestate/what-is-redlining.html, 17 08 2021, The New York Times, retrieved 02/08/2024.
  33. American Indian Health and Diet, “Health Problems-Diabetes.” https://aihd.ku.edu/health/diabetes.html#:~:text=The%20rate%20of%20diabetes%20on, retrieved 02/08/2024.
  34. Block, Jason, Scribner, Richard, DeSalvo, Karen, “Fast Food Race/Ethnicity and Income-A Geographic Analysis,” American Journal of Preventative Medicine, 2004:27(3), retrieved 02/08/2024. [CrossRef]
  35. Whitting, Lillian, “Limited Access: Poverty and Barriers to Accessible Healthcare,” https://nationalhealthcouncil.org/blog/limited-access-poverty-and-barriers-to-accessible-health-care/, 20/01/2023, retrieved 04/08/2024.
  36. Anonymous, “Why so many dialysis centers in Black neighborhoods,” https://chicagocrusader.com/why-so-many-dialysis-centers-in-black-neighborhoods/ , The Crusader Newspaper Group, 17/09/2019, retrieved 04/08/20/2019.
  37. University of Sheffield Faculty of Social Sciences, “1.2 million living in UK food deserts, study shows.” https://www.sheffield.ac.uk/social-sciences/news/12-million-living-uk-food-deserts-studys-shows, 06/10/2018, retrieved 10/07/2024.
  38. Public Health England, “England’s poorest areas are fast food hotspots,” https://www.gov.uk/government/news/englands-poorest-areas-are-fast-food-hotspots, 29/06/2018, retrieved 03/08/2024.
  39. The Medic Portal, TMP ASPIRE24, “Challenges Facing The NHS and Current NHS Issues, “ https://www.themedicportal.com/application-guide/the-nhs/challenges-facing-the-nhs/ 2024, retrieved 04/08/2024.
1
“BBC, “The transatlantic slave trade overview,” https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/topics/z2qj6sg/articles/zfkfn9q#z3jbvwx, My Bitesize, BBC, 2024, retrieved 14/07/2024
2
Digital History, “The Middle Passage,” Digital History, https://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtid=2&psid=446#:~:text=At%20least%202%20million%20Africans,or%20during%20the%20Middle%20Passage, , 2021, retrieved 26/07/2024
3
USAID from the American people, “Landlinks Sudan”, https://www.land-links.org/country-profile/sudan/, retrieved 02/08/2024
4
Kempadoo, Kamala, ‘Bound Coolies’ and Other Indentured Workers in the Indentured Workers in the Caribbean: Implications for debates about human trafficking and modern slavery,” retrieved 26/07/2024
5
Handler, JS, “Diseases and Medical Disabilities of Enslaved Barbadians from the Seventh Century to around 1838 Part I,” 2008, retrieved 26/07/2024
6
National Museums Liverpool, https://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/diet-and-food-production-enslaved-africans, retrieved 10/07/2024
7
Keyes, Jazz, “Slave Foods: The Impact Of Unhealthy Eating Habits Upon The Black Community,” https://www.ebony.com/black-health-food-diet/, 18 June, 2019
8
National Museums Liverpool, https://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/diet-and-food-production-enslaved-africans, retrieved 27/07/2024
9
“Caribbean Island-Threats,” Critical Ecosystem Partnership Funds, https://www.cepf.net/our-work/biodiversity-hotspots/caribbean-islands/threats, retrieved 27/07/2024
10
“ Olaudah Equiano Describes His Homeland in West Africa, The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vasa, the African, 1789, Chapter 1, Excerpts,” The National Humanities Resource Center Resource Toolbox The Making of the African Identity, Vol. 1, 1500-1865, https://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/diet-and-food-production-enslaved-africans), retrieved 27/07/2024
11
Agricultural and Horticulture Development Board 2024, “Feeding Maize Silage to Cattle,” https://ahdb.org.uk/knowledge-library/growing-and-feeding-maize-silage#:~:text=Maize%20silage%20is%20a%20good,stages%20in%20their%20production%20cycle. retrieved 28/07/2024
12
Taylor and Francis Online, “The British East Indian Company and The Great Bengal Famine of 1770: Towards A Corporate Colonial Biopolitics,” 14 March 2024, retrieved 28/07/2024
13
Environment and Society Portal, “Indian land Acquisition Act,” retrieved 28/07/2024
14
BYJU’S (Educational Technology Company), “Which crops did the British cultivate,” 2023, retrieved 28/07/2024
15
The Pioneer, “Deforestation in India Under British Rule,” 22/09/2021, https://www.dailypioneer.com/2021/columnists/deforestation-in-india-during-british-rule.html, retrieved 14/06/2024
16
World Wildlife Magazine, “What Are the Biggest Drivers of Deforestation? They May Not Be What You Think,” Summer 2018, https://www.worldwildlife.org/magazine/issues/summer-2018/articles/what-are-the-biggest-drivers-of-tropical-deforestation, retrieved 28/07/2024
17
Monga Bay, ”Illegal deforestation rises in South America’s Indigenous territories, parks,” https://news.mongabay.com/2020/12/illegal-deforestation-rises-in-south-americas-indigenous-territories-parks/, 29/12/2020, retrieved 10/07/2024
18
Flack, Jess, “Hearing the Unheard I: The Sami-Can Centuries of Oppression be undone?,” The Cambridge Language Collective, https://www.thecambridgelanguagecollective.com/current-affairs/hearing-the-unheard-i-the-smi-can-centuries-of-oppression-be-undone#:~:text=However%2C%20interference%20from%20Nordic%20governments,the%20S%C3%A1mi%20of%20their%20rights, 2024, retrieved 30/07/2024
19
Bynum, Russ, “Slave Descendants on Georgia island fighting to keep protections that helped them to keep their land,” US News, https://apnews.com/article/gullah-geechee-georgia-sapelo-zoning-taxes-bdd34809b79edbbe01b79ee6ae50a830, 7/09/2023, retrieved 30/07/2024
20
Gilma, Salma, A. “Getting to Know the Guna People,”30/12/2019, https://www.expeditions.com/expedition-stories/stories/getting-to-know-the-guna-people-of-panama, retrieved 30/07/2024
21
Historic UK, “The Darien Scheme,” https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofScotland/The-Darien-Scheme/, retrieved 30/07/2024
22
Glasgow University Library, “The Darien Scheme” (Book of the Month), https://www.gla.ac.uk/myglasgow/library/files/special/exhibns/month/may2005.html, 2005, retrieved 02/08/2024
23
Al Jazerra Staff, “Indigenous Rights: Climate displacement threatens Indigenous Guna people in Panama: HRW,” 31/07/2023, retrieved 10/07/2024
24
Kamau, John, “How Kenya’s tourism is crafted on colonial image of ‘exotic Massai, https://nation.africa/kenya/news/how-kenya-s-tourism-is-crafted-on-colonial-image-of-the-exotic-maasai--4017878, Nation, 13/11/2022, retrieved 31/07/2024
25
Amor, Bani, “The continued displacement of the Massai shows how tourism harms more than it helps, Part I,” https://www.miamiherald.com/detour/article264165311.html, 05/08/2022, retrieved 31/07/2024
26
World Bank Group, “Journey into the Congo Basin-The Lungs of Africa and Beating Heart of the World,” 24/10/2022, retrieved 11/07/2024
27
Cordell, Denis, “Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing in Republic of the Congo in Economy,” https://www.britannica.com/place/Republic-of-the-Congo/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing, Britannica, 29/07/2024, retrieved 01/08/2024
28
Aquilas, Nkwetta, Mykong, A.,Kimengsi, J., and Ngongnchi, F. ,”Economic Activities and Deforestation in the Congo Basin: An Environmental Kuznets curve framework analysis,” ScienceDirect, Vol.8, 08/2022
29
Roessler, Philip, Pengi, Y., Marty, R., Titlow, K., Van de Walle, N., “The Cash Crop Revolution, Colonialism, and Legacies of Spatial Inequality: Evidence from Africa,” CSAE Working Paper Series 2020-12, Center for the Study of African Economics, University of Oxford., retrieved 08/01/2024
30
National Museum of African American History & Culture, Part I, Chapter 4, “1514-1886, The Transatlantic Slave Trade,” https://www.searchablemuseum.com/change-the-human-cost , retrieved 01/08/2024
31
Mahoney, Michael, “Irish Indentured Labor in the Caribbean,” https://blog.nationalarchives.gov.uk/irish-indentured-labour-in-the-caribbean/ National Archives, 11/04/2023, retrieved 02/08/2024
32
London Museum, “Women in Indian Indentured Labor,” https://www.londonmuseum.org.uk/blog/women-in-indian-indentured-labour/, 29 April 2023, retrieved 09/06/2024
33
Roessler, Philip. Pengi, Yannick. Marty, Robert. Titlow, Kyle. Van de Walle, Nicolas. “The Cash Crop Revolution, Colonialism and Legacies of Spatial Inequality: Evidence from Africa,” IDEAS, 2020, retrieved 02/08/2024
34
Jackson. Candace, “What is Redling?,” https://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/17/realestate/what-is-redlining.html, 17 08 2021, The New York Times, retrieved 02/08/2024
35
American Indian Health and Diet, “Health Problems-Diabetes.” https://aihd.ku.edu/health/diabetes.html#:~:text=The%20rate%20of%20diabetes%20on, retrieved 02/08/2024
36
 
37
Block, Jason, Scribner, Richard, DeSalvo, Karen, “Fast Food Race/Ethnicity and Income-A Geographic Analysis,” American Journal of Preventative Medicine, 2004:27(3), retrieved 02/08/2024
38
Whitting, Lillian, “Limited Access: Poverty and Barriers to Accessible Healthcare,” https://nationalhealthcouncil.org/blog/limited-access-poverty-and-barriers-to-accessible-health-care/, 20/01/2023, retrieved 04/08/2024
39
Anonymous, “Why so many dialysis centers in Black neighborhoods,” https://chicagocrusader.com/why-so-many-dialysis-centers-in-black-neighborhoods/ , The Crusader Newspaper Group, 17/09/2019, retrieved 04/08/20/2019
40
University of Sheffield Faculty of Social Sciences, “1.2 million living in UK food deserts, study shows.” https://www.sheffield.ac.uk/social-sciences/news/12-million-living-uk-food-deserts-studys-shows, 06/10/2018, retrieved 10/07/2024
41
Public Health England, “England’s poorest areas are fast food hotspots,” https://www.gov.uk/government/news/englands-poorest-areas-are-fast-food-hotspots, 29/06/2018, retrieved 03/08/2024
42
The Medic Portal, TMP ASPIRE24, “Challenges Facing The NHS and Current NHS Issues, “ https://www.themedicportal.com/application-guide/the-nhs/challenges-facing-the-nhs/ 2024, retrieved 04/08/2024
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.
Copyright: This open access article is published under a Creative Commons CC BY 4.0 license, which permit the free download, distribution, and reuse, provided that the author and preprint are cited in any reuse.
Prerpints.org logo

Preprints.org is a free preprint server supported by MDPI in Basel, Switzerland.

facebook logotwitter logolinkedin logo
bsky
MDPI Initiatives
Important Links
Subscribe

Disclaimer

Terms of Use

Privacy Policy

Privacy Settings

© 2025 MDPI (Basel, Switzerland) unless otherwise stated