The Health Consequences of Plastic Milk Packaging: A Emphasis on Cancer

Abhinandan Patil; Janvi Rathi

doi:10.20944/preprints202407.2430.v1

Submitted:

29 July 2024

Posted:

30 July 2024

Read the latest preprint version here

Abstract

The pervasive use of plastic for milk packaging has raised significant health concerns, despite its advantages in terms of cost-effectiveness, convenience, and durability. The potential correlation between cancer and plastic packaging is one of these concerns. This mini-review examines the health implications of plastic materials used in milk packaging, with a particular emphasis on their carcinogenic hazards. This work endeavors to summarize the current state of knowledge regarding the influence of plastic components on human health and underscore the importance of ongoing research in this field by utilizing insights from a comprehensive review article. Harmful chemicals have been observed to leach into milk from plastics used in milk packaging, including high-density polyethylene (HDPE), low-density polyethylene (LDPE), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET), particularly under conditions of protracted storage and heat. Bisphenol A (BPA), phthalates, and styrene are among the most prevalent leachates. These chemicals have been associated with a variety of health issues, such as an elevated risk of cancer, and are recognized for their endocrine-disrupting properties. BPA and phthalates, in particular, have the potential to disrupt hormone function, which may result in breast cancer, prostate cancer, and other hormone-related malignancies.This review emphasizes the significance of comprehending the precise components of plastics utilized in milk packaging and their potential health consequences. It advocates for more rigorous research to completely elucidate the long-term health impacts of these materials by emphasizing the current state of knowledge and regulatory initiatives. Additionally, it underscores the necessity of innovative packaging technologies to guarantee consumer protection and mitigate the risk of exposure to carcinogenic substances.

Keywords:

plastic

;

milk

;

carcinogenic substances

;

human health

Subject:

Public Health and Healthcare - Public, Environmental and Occupational Health

Introduction:

The use of plastics in milk packaging is particularly prevalent, and they are ubiquitous in contemporary life. This section offers a comprehensive examination of the reasons for the widespread use of plastics in milk packaging, the health concerns that have been raised, and the specific dangers associated with the components of these plastics [1].

Plastics are the favored material for milk packaging due to their numerous advantages [2,3,4,5]:

1. Convenience: Plastics are lightweight and simple to handle, making them a convenient choice for both consumers and manufacturers. Additionally, they are shatterproof, which mitigates the likelihood of fracture during transportation and handling, in contrast to glass containers.

2. Cost-Effectiveness: Plastic containers are relatively inexpensive to produce and manufacture. Plastic packaging is an economically attractive option due to the fact that it is affordable throughout the entire supply chain, from the procurement of raw materials to production and transportation.

3. Durability: Plastics are renowned for their durability. They are capable of withstanding a variety of environmental conditions without experiencing any degradation. This durability safeguards milk from physical injury and contaminants, thereby extending its shelf life.

Increasing Health Concerns

The use of plastics in milk packaging is associated with significant health concerns, despite these advantages. The primary concern surrounding these concerns is the potential for plastics to leach hazardous chemicals into the milk, which can have severe health consequences, such as an elevated risk of cancer.

1. Chemical Leaching: The milk that plastics contain can be contaminated with chemicals that are leached from the plastic. This leaching can be induced by a variety of factors, including protracted storage, exposure to light, and heat. Bisphenol A (BPA), phthalates, and styrene are the most prevalent chemicals that leach from plastics. All of these chemicals have been associated with negative health consequences.

2. Endocrine Disruption: Certain chemicals, such as BPA and phthalates, are recognized as endocrine disruptors and leach from plastics. These substances have the potential to disrupt the body's hormone systems, which could result in developmental, reproductive, and neurological complications. An elevated incidence of specific cancers, such as breast and prostate cancer, has been associated with endocrine disruption.

3. Carcinogenic Potential: Research has demonstrated that specific chemicals utilized in plastics have the potential to cause cancer. For instance, hormone-related cancers have been connected to BPA, while liver cancer has been linked to phthalates. The consumption of milk packaged in plastic containers, which results in continuous exposure to these chemicals, raises substantial concerns regarding long-term health hazards.

Plastic Substances Employed in Milk Packaging

Milk packaging employs a variety of plastics, each of which carries its own set of health risks:

1. High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE): HDPE is a material that is frequently employed in the production of milk containers and bottles. It is highly regarded for its durability and impermeability. Nevertheless, HDPE has the potential to leach chemicals, particularly when it is subjected to UV light or heat.

2. Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE): LDPE is employed in the production of milk containers and liners. It is both durable and flexible; however, it is also capable of discharging chemicals under specific circumstances, similar to HDPE.

3. Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET): PET is employed to produce milk vessels that are both transparent and lightweight. It is recognized for its transparency and durability. Nevertheless, PET has the potential to release antimony and other hazardous chemicals, particularly when exposed to elevated temperatures.

Health Risks Associated with These Components

The chemicals that can leach into the milk are the primary cause of the health hazards associated with the components of plastics used in milk packaging:

1. Bisphenol A (BPA): BPA is employed in the production of specific plastics and epoxy compounds. It has the potential to imitate estradiol and other hormones in the body, resulting in hormonal imbalances. The risk of breast and prostate cancer, as well as other health issues like diabetes and heart disease, has been associated with BPA exposure in many studies.

2. Phthalates: These chemicals are employed to enhance the flexibility of plastics. Phthalates have been associated with liver cancer, reproductive issues, and developmental problems in children, as they can disrupt the body's endocrine system.

3. Styrene: A potential human carcinogen, styrene is present in polystyrene containers. An elevated risk of leukemia and lymphoma has been linked to chronic exposure to styrene.

Table 1. Types of Plastics Used in Milk Packaging [6,7,8].

Type of Plastic	Properties	Health Implications
HDPE	High strength, impermeable	Potential chemical leaching
LDPE	Flexible, strong	Potential chemical leaching
PET	Strong, transparent	Potential chemical leaching

Chemical Leaching and Health Risks

Especially when subjected to sunlight or heat, plastics have the potential to leach hazardous chemicals into food products. Common leachates from plastics include styrene, phthalates, and bisphenol A (BPA), which have been associated with a variety of health issues. In particular, BPA and phthalates are recognized as endocrine disruptors, which have the potential to disrupt hormone function and result in the development of cancer [8,9,10,11].

Table 1. Harmful Chemicals Leached from Plastics and Associated Health Issues.

Chemical	Source/Type of Plastic	Conditions for Leaching	Health Issues	Detailed Health Implications
Bisphenol A (BPA)	Polycarbonate plastics, epoxy resins	Heat, prolonged storage	Endocrine disruption, cancer	BPA mimics estrogen and can disrupt hormonal balance, leading to developmental and reproductive issues. It has been linked to breast cancer, prostate cancer, heart disease, diabetes, and developmental problems in children.
Phthalates	PVC (Polyvinyl chloride), flexible plastics	Heat, prolonged storage, fatty foods	Endocrine disruption, reproductive toxicity, liver cancer	Phthalates can interfere with the endocrine system, affecting reproductive health and development. They have been linked to reduced fertility, birth defects, asthma, and an increased risk of liver cancer and developmental disorders in children.
Styrene	Polystyrene plastics	Heat, fatty foods	Carcinogenic potential, neurotoxicity	Styrene is a potential human carcinogen. Chronic exposure has been associated with an increased risk of leukemia and lymphoma. It can also cause neurotoxic effects, affecting the central nervous system, leading to headaches, fatigue, and dizziness.
Antimony	Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)	Heat, acidic or alcoholic beverages	Respiratory and skin irritation, potential carcinogen	Antimony exposure can cause respiratory problems, skin irritation, and gastrointestinal issues. Long-term exposure is suspected to have carcinogenic effects, potentially increasing the risk of lung cancer.
Formaldehyde	Melamine plastics, thermoset plastics	Heat, acidic foods	Carcinogenic potential, respiratory issues	Formaldehyde is classified as a human carcinogen. It can cause respiratory issues, eye irritation, and has been linked to nasopharyngeal cancer. Chronic exposure may also contribute to leukemia and other cancers.
Vinyl Chloride	PVC	Heat, prolonged storage	Carcinogenic potential, liver damage	Vinyl chloride is a known human carcinogen. It has been linked to liver cancer (angiosarcoma of the liver), brain cancer, and lung cancer. It can also cause damage to the liver, nervous system, and immune system.
Nonylphenol	Polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP)	Heat, fatty foods	Endocrine disruption, reproductive toxicity	Nonylphenol disrupts endocrine function, affecting reproductive health. It can cause decreased fertility, developmental abnormalities, and has been associated with breast cancer.
Acrylonitrile	Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)	Heat, prolonged storage	Carcinogenic potential, respiratory issues	Acrylonitrile is classified as a probable human carcinogen. It can cause respiratory problems, skin irritation, and has been linked to an increased risk of lung cancer.

Figure 1. Diagram of Chemical Leaching Process.

Carcinogenic Potential

It is possible for plastics to leach dangerous compounds into food products, particularly when they are subjected to heat or exposed to sunlight. Among the leachates that are commonly produced from plastics are bisphenol A (BPA), phthalates, and styrene, all of which have been associated with a variety of health problems. Specifically, bisphenol A (BPA) and phthalates are examples of endocrine disruptors, which are substances that have the potential to disrupt the function of hormones and may even cause cancer [12,13,14,15].

Regulatory Measures and Recommendations

Regulatory bodies have started to tackle the concerns regarding chemical leaching from plastics used in food packaging by establishing limits on the allowable concentrations of harmful substances such as bisphenol A (BPA), phthalates, and styrene. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) are among the leading agencies setting these guidelines to protect public health [16].

Key Points of Regulation [16,17,18,19]:

1. Setting Maximum Limits: Regulations define maximum allowable concentrations of specific chemicals in food contact materials to reduce exposure risks.

2. Monitoring and Testing: Continuous monitoring and testing of plastic materials used in food packaging ensure compliance with established safety standards.

3. Safety Assessments: Comprehensive safety assessments are conducted to evaluate the potential health impacts of chemicals used in food packaging.

Effectiveness and Criticism:

Despite these regulatory efforts, the effectiveness of these measures remains under scrutiny. Critics argue that the current regulations are not stringent enough to fully mitigate health risks associated with long-term exposure to these chemicals. The complexities of chemical interactions and cumulative exposure are challenging to address within existing regulatory frameworks.

Call for More Stringent Measures:

There is a growing demand for more rigorous regulations and comprehensive safety evaluations. This includes:

- Lowering Allowable Limits: Reducing the permissible levels of harmful chemicals in food packaging to minimize exposure.

- Alternative Packaging Solutions: Promoting the development and adoption of safer, non-plastic packaging materials that do not pose the same health risks.

- Research and Innovation: Encouraging research into the health impacts of chemical exposure from plastics and the innovation of safer alternatives.

The push for stricter regulations and alternative packaging solutions aims to enhance consumer safety and reduce the potential health risks associated with chemical leaching from plastic food packaging [19,20,21,22,23,24].

Conclusion

It is possible that the use of plastic in milk packaging could constitute a threat to public health due to the leaching of potentially hazardous compounds, some of which have been associated with the development of cancer. In spite of the fact that regulatory safeguards are already in place, additional research and more stringent rules are required to guarantee the safety of consumers. There should also be an investigation into alternatives to plastic packaging in order to reduce the potential health concerns. The purpose of this brief overview is to draw attention to the urgent requirement for continued study into the health impacts of plastic packaging and to encourage the development of alternatives that are considerably safer. When consumers and producers have a better grasp of the potential carcinogenic dangers connected with plastics, they are able to make more informed decisions regarding the materials that are used for milk packaging.

References

Gautam, A.M.; Caetano, N. Study, design and analysis of sustainable alternatives to plastic takeaway cutlery and crockery. Energy Procedia. 2017, 136, 507–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Folkman, J. Angiogenesis in cancer, vascular, rheumatoid and other disease. Nat Med. 1995, 1, 27–31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Purhus, K.A.; Kamstrup, L.R.; Lévová, T.; Didel, J.M.; Engelbrechtsen, M.; Yusuf, R.O.; Danesh, M.H.S. Life Cycle Analysis of Steelcase Manufacturing. 2010.
Landrock, A.H. Handbook of plastic foams: types, properties, manufacture and applications. Elsevier; 1995.
Andrady, A.L. Microplastics in the marine environment. Mar Pollut Bull. 2011, 62, 1596–1605. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Fendall, L.S.; Sewell, M.A. Contributing to marine pollution by washing your face: microplastics in facial cleansers. Mar Pollut Bull. 2009, 58, 1225–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Lusher, A.; Hernandez-Milian, G.; O’Brien, J.; Berrow, S.; O’Connor, I.; Officer, R. Microplastic and macroplastic ingestion by a deep diving, oceanic cetacean: The True’s beaked whale Mesoplodon mirus. Environ Pollut. 2015, 199, 185–91. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Azzarello, M.Y.; Van Vleet, E.S. Marine birds and plastic pollution. Mar Ecol Prog Ser. 1987, 37, 295–303. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Gregory, M.R. Environmental implications of plastic debris in marine settings--entanglement, ingestion, smothering, hangers-on, hitch-hiking and alien invasions. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2009, 364, 2013–25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Furness, R.W. Birds as monitors of pollutants. In: Furness RW, Greenwood JJD, editors. Birds as monitors of environmental change. Dordrecht: Springer; 1993. p. 86-143.
Sigler, M. The effects of plastic pollution on aquatic wildlife: current situations and future solutions. Water Air Soil Pollut. 2014, 225, 2184. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Derraik, J.G.B. The pollution of the marine environment by plastic debris: a review. Mar Pollut Bull. 2002, 44, 842–52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Weston, C.J.; Attiwill, P.M. Clearfelling and burning effects on nitrogen mineralization and leaching in soils of old-age Eucalyptus regnans forests. For Ecol Manag. 1996, 89, 13–24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Thompson, R.C.; Moore, C.J.; Saal, F.S.; Swan, S.H. Plastics, the environment and human health: current consensus and future trends. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2009, 364, 2153–66. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Vandenberg, L.N.; Hauser, R.; Marcus, M.; Olea, N.; Welshons, W.V. Human exposure to bisphenol A (BPA). Reprod Toxicol. 2007, 24, 139–77. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Howdeshell, K.L.; Hotchkiss, A.K.; Thayer, K.A.; Vandenbergh, J.G.; Saal, F.S. Exposure to bisphenol A advances puberty. Nature. 1999, 401, 763–4. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Melzer, D.; Rice, N.E.; Lewis, C.; Henley, W.E.; Galloway, T.S. Association of urinary bisphenol a concentration with heart disease: evidence from NHANES 2003/06. PLoS One. 2010, 5, e8673. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Alonso-Magdalena, P.; Morimoto, S.; Ripoll, C.; Fuentes, E.; Nadal, A. The estrogenic effect of bisphenol A disrupts pancreatic beta-cell function in vivo and induces insulin resistance. Environ Health Perspect. 2006, 114, 106–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Wolstenholme, J.T.; Rissman, E.F.; Connelly, J.J. The role of Bisphenol A in shaping the brain, epigenome and behavior. Horm Behav. 2011, 59, 296–305. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Nakaya, M.; Onda, H.; Sasaki, K.; Yukiyoshi, A.; Tachibana, H.; Yamada, K. Effect of royal jelly on bisphenol A-induced proliferation of human breast cancer cells. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem. 2007, 71, 253–5. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Nalawade, A.S.; Gurav, R.V.; Patil, A.R.; Patwekar, M.; Patwekar, F. A comprehensive review on morphological, genetic and phytochemical diversity, breeding and bioprospecting studies of genus Chlorophytum Ker Gawl. from India. Trends Phytochem. Res. 2022, 6, 19–45. [Google Scholar]
Patil, K.G.; Balkundhi, S.; Joshi, H.; Ghewade, G. Mehsana buffalo milk as prebiotics for growth of Lactobacillus. Int J Pharm Pharm Res. 2011, 1, 114–117. [Google Scholar]
Das, N.; Ray, N.; Patil, A.R.; Saini, S.S.; Waghmode, B.; Ghosh, C.; Patil, S.B.; et al. Inhibitory effect of selected Indian honey on colon cancer cell growth by inducing apoptosis and targeting the β-catenin/Wnt pathway. Food & Funct. 2022, 13, 8283–8303. [Google Scholar]
Patil, M.J.; Patil, A.G.; Patil, D.A.; Patil, S.P.; Patil, A.R. Screening and characterization of antifungal substances from probiotics against Candida species. Int J Pharm Pharm Res. 2013, 4, 149–156. [Google Scholar]

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

© 2024 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Copyright: This open access article is published under a Creative Commons CC BY 4.0 license, which permit the free download, distribution, and reuse, provided that the author and preprint are cited in any reuse.