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Overcoming the Technological Barriers in the Blockchain Supply Chain for Small Carriers

A peer-reviewed version of this preprint was published in:
Applied Sciences 2024, 14(11), 4452. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14114452

Submitted:

15 April 2024

Posted:

16 April 2024

Read the latest preprint version here

Abstract
The current trend in supply chain development requires the application of new knowledge to meet the challenges posed by new technologies. One such technology is blockchain, which facilitates supply chain solutions through the use of innovative data transfer, storage and verification systems. However, the use of blockchain can be challenging for certain stakeholders, such as small carriers, who may lack the necessary technical expertise or access to the technology. In this paper, we explore the potential for engaging small carriers that provide services within the blockchain supply chain but face technological barriers. We identify the barriers and opportunities for these carriers to participate, focusing on a case study of a small carrier that transports temperature-sensitive cargo. In addition, we introduce in-vehicle temperature measurement for use in cold chains and propose an ecosystem that can benefit different stakeholder groups.
Keywords: 
blockchain
;  
supply chain
;  
barriers
;  
small carriers
Subject: 
Engineering  -   Transportation Science and Technology

1. Introduction

In today’s globalised and digitised world, we rely heavily on third-party entities to make decisions, act, and interact. Trust is crucial in such interactions. While the Internet was about digitising information and social media was about digitising communities, blockchain technology was developed to digitise value and create a decentralised network for transferring value without depending on trusted third parties. In the absence of blockchain technology, digital continuity cannot be guaranteed without the involvement of a trusted third party. Anyone could easily copy and paste data, making it difficult to track changes. However, with the advent of blockchain technology, it is now possible to ensure data authenticity and continuity without relying on trusted third parties. [1]. Blockchain is thus suitable in such cases where users need trusted record keeping (the necessity of keeping a complete history of data) without the involvement of a centralised authority. Instead of this authority, a P2P network takes control of the shared data [2]. Blockchain technology became the most famous mainly because of cryptocurrencies, which brought an alternative way of financial operations or applications to a greater extent. The typical representatives are financial operations based on cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin, Ethereum, and similar products [3]. Cryptocurrencies play a significant role in the blockchain. Cryptocurrency is a virtual currency that, like real-world currency, is used as a medium of exchange between users. However, the main distinction is that cryptocurrencies are not controlled and regulated by any central authority [4].
The exchange of financial assets (finance) through cryptocurrencies is not the only application area of Blockchain technology. Many blockchain platforms allow decentralised financing, which is more flexible than conventional centralised financing, bringing benefits but also limitations [5]. Currently, other non-financial applications that can be operated on this technology are also interesting [6]. Blockchain technology can also work on the principle of tokens. A digital token is a tool that allows users to exchange verifiable data in different ways. Tokens within the Blockchain allow for a programmable representation of digital assets. Token units are meant to serve as digital coins. Transferring token units means removing or debiting funds from the sending account balance and adding or crediting them to the receiving account balance [7]. Blockchain has gained a lot of attention with its architecture, specific features (immutability of data once stored, real-time data sharing, distribution, decentralised, etc.) and especially the ability to store, keep and share any data (not just finance). Many researchers have researched the areas in which this technology can be applied. Several authors have conducted a review of Blockchain applications [8,9,10,11,12]. They have demonstrated that the range of applications is extensive. For example, healthcare (health records, verification of doctors’ qualifications, telemedicine), government (smart city, voting, education, property management), area of autonomous vehicles, AI, machine learning, big data, maintenance (together with digital twin), and supply chain. Bao et al. [13]. The energy sector could be one of the industries most affected shortly. However, as this technology is based on data sharing, we must point out that each area must be entirely digital and operate based on the Internet. Therefore, one of the main areas of implementation is the Internet of Things (IoT).
Our paper focuses on the area that can benefit the most from Blockchain implementation: the supply chain. Several stakeholder groups are somehow involved in the supply chain process. There are the manufacturers who supply the original product. There are the carriers who transport the product, the warehouses that store the product and the final points of sale, where the product reaches the customer. Various parties in a supply chain need to trust each other, even if they don’t know each other. However, the interactions between these parties can often result in high costs, loss of trust, long delivery times, excess consumption, environmental pollution, etc. This is where blockchain can be very useful. The main aim of the supply chain is to ensure that the original product reaches the end customer in the best possible quality. Achieving this is a challenge for all intermediate links in the supply chain, especially for a cold supply chain. In today’s fast-paced world, faster dissemination and storage of information is required in the transport sector of perishable foodstuffs. It is essential to monitor the temperature in every part of the foodstuff supply chain to maintain the health and safety of humans and animals consuming it. However, currently, there is no system to keep the information so that it is possible to go back and check it after a certain period. Therefore, there is a worldwide effort to verify food or sources so that their original origin can be identified clearly. Some authors have presented a theoretical way of applying blockchain in tracking food or other goods. Traceability in the food industry has become increasingly important as we strive to improve climatic conditions and health. [14]. One of the crucial features of blockchain in the supply chain might also be the ability to store data from geospacers [15] and simultaneously enable the information flow from various sensors or peripheral devices, e.g., IoT. Our study has made three main contributions. Firstly, we have identified challenges for small carriers (carriers with a limited vehicle fleet, without the ability to send online data from the vehicles, without connecting to an advanced network or system) when transporting temperature-sensitive goods. Secondly, we have identified the different levels of control required in such situations. Finally, we have proposed a universal ecosystem and requirements for storing data on a distributed ledger platform, such as blockchain or similar platforms.
The structure of the paper is divided as follows:
Section 2 discusses the related work focused on the analysis of blockchain technology studies, devices for data acquisitions, and supply chain applications linked to Blockchain; Section 3 presents the materials and methodology we applied to the case study described in Section 4; Section 4 presents the case study of measurement of the temperature of a vehicle intended for the transport of temperature-sensitive goods. Section 5 discusses the outcomes and future work.

3. Methodology and Materials

This section presents the differences in control that result from the availability of different technological systems in the supply chain. This is linked to the issue of private and public networks, which has implications for the way in which actors or stakeholders in these networks cooperate together. Therefore, we discuss the differences from the perspective of different data control levels for various stakeholders. The last section presents a case study of measurement in an isothermal vehicle and data verification in a blockchain-based platform.
An essential question in the supply chain is whether to prioritise a private or public network [53]. Private and public blockchains differ primarily in their accessibility, governance, and level of decentralisation, which are key factors influencing their use in the supply chain.
Regarding accessibility, public blockchains are open and permissionless networks, meaning anyone can participate, transact, and validate transactions without needing approval. Private blockchains are permissioned (a network with restricted access for authorised entities) networks that restrict access and participation to specific entities or members. Governance in public blockchains is typically decentralised, with decisions made through consensus mechanisms involving many participants. Changes to the protocol or network require agreement among most of the network. Governance in private blockchains is centralised or semi-centralised, with a governing authority or a consortium of entities controlling decision-making processes [54]. Changes can be implemented more swiftly and are subject to the rules established by the governing entity or entities.
In summary, public blockchains are open and decentralised networks accessible to anyone. In contrast, private blockchains are permissioned, centrally governed networks with restricted access tailored to specific use cases and participants’ needs. Therefore, a public network is meaningful within a closed chain, where there is no need for the interaction of external stakeholders. Such a private network can set its own rules, representing, for example, the current quality standards of a specific product or process. Therefore, they are more suitable for the supply chain. From this perspective, private companies will find it easier to create private networks with their own rules or standards to follow.
Traditional supply chain management (SCM) is based on classical product ordering and control through people (see Figure 1). On the other hand, decentralised SCM makes decisions based on data stored in the ledger.
In contrast, blockchain technology can save time, increase credibility, and protect data, all automatically, to minimise human intervention in processes such as ordering, issuing a bill of lading, invoicing, etc. Human interaction and intervention will only be kept to a minimum; see Figure 2.
With the deepening of globalisation, the supply chain of modern enterprises has become fragmented, complicated, and diversified. This also brings great challenges to supply chain management. The most significant example is the food safety problem. Once food pollution occurs, tracing back to the source takes a week or even longer. Food producers or retailers are likely to pay a heavy price. This situation leads to the opacity of the supply chain, which is more likely to drive up operating costs [55].
If it were possible to create blocks for individual activities in the supply chain that could be checked in real-time, this would make it easier to control and find the culprit of spoilage. Also, if the goods were not perishable but, for example, high-value goods that must be transported at a specific temperature and humidity, it would be possible to store and control these records continuously. The blockchain application would also be very suitable for transporting pharmaceuticals, which must be transported under controlled temperature and humidity [56].
If a stakeholder is interested in applying blockchain within their supply chain processes, the process must be set up correctly. First, it must prepare the methods for transferring data from the sensor network (e.g. IoT or private network) to the blockchain. He also needs to know what platform and authentication he will use. A consensus must be reached between the various stakeholders. It is quite likely that different types of platforms will be used in the future, so it will be necessary to ensure compatibility between them.
Levels of controls
The logistics and supply chain industry faces a challenge due to the involvement of numerous companies, each with different roles, services, and levels of technology and information management. This results in variations in quality control and data collection processes. We have proposed the primary levels of controls.
  • Manual control
The first level of goods transportation involves manual measurement and control of the temperature and other conditions during transportation. This information is only accessible to the responsible organisation or the carrier itself. A responsible person publishes the report. Small carriers usually provide such a level of control with limited budgets and access to technology.
2.
Semi-manual control
The second level involves creating a comprehensive system that can automatically collect temperature data, transmit it to relevant parties or store it in a central database. The system can also monitor the temperature within the vehicle as per the requirement, track its location, or monitor other parameters. However, human intervention is still required to check the database and enter instructions.
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Figure 4. Semi - Manual temperature control of goods.
Figure 4. Semi - Manual temperature control of goods.
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3.
Automatic control
The third level of automation allows for temperature control without any human intervention. Creating a sensor architecture that can automatically evaluate and provide instructions based on the data collected is possible. This data can be securely stored using blockchain technology, providing stakeholders with trustworthy data on which to base their actions. Companies with well-established systems of automation and sensor networks typically use this type of control.
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Figure 5. Automatic control within the blockchain.
Figure 5. Automatic control within the blockchain.
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The following table compares the key aspects of control. Manual control will have lower operational costs than semi-automatic control, which results from the fact that there is no need to create an operational and capital-cost-intensive sensor architecture. Stakeholders who do not need to share temperature data will only prefer manual control. On the other hand, automatic control is more relevant for stakeholders involved in a supply chain where data sharing is required and meets other criteria.
Table 1. Comparison of various aspects of control.
Table 1. Comparison of various aspects of control.
Factors Manual Semi-manual Automatic
Operation cost Low Medium High
Human intervention High Medium Low
Technology dependence Low Medium High
Data Sharing Low Medium High
It is essential to acknowledge that many transport operators still do not use modern technologies to ensure online data accuracy and control of transport conditions. This is due to various barriers that prevent them from utilising new technologies or existing sensor networks. For small carries, the following are identified as the main barriers:
  • lack of access to technology,
  • motivation to use new technologies,
  • insufficient financial resources to upgrade equipment or technology,
  • ignorance and mistrust of new technologies,
  • lack of transport standards.

4. Case study: Measurement of the Temperature of a Vehicle Intended for the Transport of Temperature-Sensitive Good

Sequencing all activities is vital during the transportation of perishable food items. In areas where refrigeration or freezing is necessary, constant monitoring is crucial. Hence, temperature monitoring is the most accurate method, and subsequent traceability data storage is easy to maintain in this part of the supply chain. However, measuring the temperature of goods directly loaded onto a transport vehicle from the point of production or manufacturing (e.g., orchards) where pre-cooling of the area is not required may cause a problem. Additionally, there may be issues during transportation or unloading from the vehicle. Strict adherence to honesty, trust, and quality standards is necessary throughout the supply chain process. Several regulatory bodies have established rules and regulations to increase the openness, safety, and quality of the traceability system of the supply chain. The system uses barcodes to identify the products’ country of origin [57].
The current practice is to use telematics systems installed in vehicles during manufacture to monitor the temperature during transport. However, this is not always possible for all goods that are transported. Semi-trailers used for road transport must have temperature control devices to ensure the temperature progression is minimally affected after transport. Unfortunately, this data is not permanently stored online, making it challenging to identify the cause of spoilage or contamination. Most warehouses and loading bays are designed for loading and unloading goods. The figure below shows the activities performed throughout the supply chain, with the left column displaying the activities and the right column showing how temperature monitoring is performed at each point.
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Figure 6. Automatic control within the blockchain.
Figure 6. Automatic control within the blockchain.
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Perishable goods pose a challenge in the supply chain as the loading and unloading process generates significant heat transfer. Additionally, accurately recording temperatures at these points is nearly impossible. While semi-trailer storage areas are equipped to isolate the outside environment from the vehicle and warehouse area, the same cannot be said for delivery vans. A datalogger must be placed directly on the goods or pallet to ensure temperature control.
Temperature measurement in transport differs between semi-trailer combinations and smaller vans. Maintaining the desired temperature in vehicles with frequently opened and closed cargo doors is challenging. Therefore, it is advisable to equip cars with online monitoring systems that continuously record temperatures. The system should be designed to record temperatures near the doors, the centre of the vehicle, and the refrigeration unit where the temperature is most stable.
When goods are sold or reused in production, the same temperature control measures employed during storage should be applied. For instance, goods that require temperature regulation during transport, handling, or preparation (see Table 2) should have their temperatures measured. This is where blockchain technology can be beneficial.
Many transport companies now offer transport services using isothermal vehicles, ensuring that goods are transported under specific conditions. However, a significant issue is the sharing of transport data, as it is often only available to the transport company and not the end customer. This means the data is usually only stored within the organisation or published as reports or certifications for the company that ordered the transport. In this case study, we consider a small carrier that uses an isothermal vehicle to transport perishable foods, particularly dairy products and milk. The car does not have technology for transmitting data, only industrial temperature gauges. This example of transporting perishable goods is essential in various ways. It is about delivering the goods and ensuring that they maintain the required characteristics. For instance, the quality characteristics of food can deteriorate at high temperatures. Although other parameters, such as spatial tracking, can still be monitored, we have not focused on this aspect in this study.
Vehicle and measuring devices
In our case, we will model a case where an existing small carrier offers services for transporting perishable goods. It has an isothermal truck and temperature gauges. Control measurements were also carried out to demonstrate the need for more comprehensive and accurate measurements during transport. These measurements were carried out during the transport of chilled foodstuffs. The transport was carried out in a Fiat Ducato Professional van. The refrigeration equipment installed in the vehicle is ALEX Original, Model TRE324. The critical fact is that equipment does not operate independently; it only operates when the engine runs. According to the ATP agreement [58], the vehicle’s distinguishing mark is FNA - X/ 3-2027. This sign indicates that the vehicle is classified as a mechanically refrigerated means of transport with regular Class A insulation. In this case, the letter X in the distinguishing mark indicates that the vehicle engine drives the refrigeration equipment. The temperature commodity standard requires a temperature range of 3-8 °C.
The following figures show the vehicle in which the food was transported. This vehicle has a dependent refrigeration unit. This means that the refrigeration unit cannot operate independently without the vehicle’s engine running. It is, therefore, essential to provide a car that can give independent refrigeration for more temperature-intensive transports. Figure 7 shows the TESTO and Hadex control measuring devices we used to control the temperature in the transport compartment. Figure 8 shows the driver’s monitor, which monitors the temperature in the load compartment (Figure 9).
It follows from the above that the small carrier fulfils the primary conditions laid down by the legislation [59] for the carriage of perishable goods. In the case of guaranteeing the required temperature standard, it assumes all the risks that it carries out the transport according to the customer’s requirements. The disadvantage of this system is that the transport data is not objectively verified and not sent to a central database where it would be available to the customer. This case represents a stakeholder that does not have technology equipment that works with web or cloud-based services to enable data sharing and control by customers.
The graph shows the temperature trend recorded by the probes installed in the vehicle. The probes were installed in the vehicle at 6:05. From then on, temperature monitoring began. At 6:45, the vehicle started cooling the transport compartment by switching on the refrigeration unit. As seen in the graph, from this point on, the curve had a decreasing character. This zone is marked on the graph as No. 1. In zone No. 2, a concrete transport was performed until 11:47, when the refrigeration unit was switched off. In this part of the graph, we can see the temperature fluctuation. This is because the refrigeration unit is set in the required range from 3°C to 8 °C. However, as we can see in the graph, the measured values are sometimes outside the interval. This is due to the cold air being drawn into this space from the generator set. At points where the data curve approaches or exceeds the maximum set value, the door was observed to open as the unloading operations were being carried out. If a blockchain system were applied in the vehicle, temperature recording would be more accurate as any temperature fluctuations and exceedances would be immediately recorded and evaluated. In Zone No. 3, the refrigeration unit was noted to shut down again at 11:47 a.m. after the transport and arrival to the company’s headquarters were completed.
The proposed ecosystem of engagement in the blockchain platform.
From the previous example, it can be seen the biggest hurdle in temperature-sensitive transport lies in the following:
  • lack of verification of transport conditions,
  • the level of objectivity,
  • insufficient technological equipment,
  • Processing is based only on traditional procedures and minimum legislative requirements.
To solve this issue, the ecosystem itself will need to agree on all usable and verifiable resources that each group can use. For example, small carriers should use certified gauges. These can be non-IoT devices that operate outside of online applications.
Large carriers representing the semi-control group, which has built their information technology structure based on various sensors and IoT, will also need to certify the resources they use to perform control and collect data. This means that the authorities responsible for the blockchain network will have to set standards regarding certified inputs, i.e. devices and technology that will be recognised as verified data loggers. Blockchain technology will provide the verification and logic process (see Figure 11).
The universal ecosystem for the transport of temperature-sensitive goods should consist of the following components:
  • Legal requirements set by standards, regulations, etc., for the transportation of temperature-sensitive goods.
  • Standards for entry devices and communication gateways that certify entries, considering the level of control available between the different stakeholders. Insufficient technological equipment should also be considered.
  • Standards for secure verification in a distributed ledger, such as blockchain platforms and similar systems.
  • Establishing process logic and collaboration within the supply chain to ensure effective communication and coordination among the various stakeholders involved.
Various standards, regulations, and international treaties establish legal requirements for transporting temperature-sensitive goods. Entry devices and communication gates for entry certification are subject to minimum requirements, considering the level of control among different stakeholders. Therefore, carriers must ensure they possess the appropriate equipment to transmit data online and measure how they deliver the measured data to demonstrate compliance with the requirements for maintaining the quality of perishable foodstuffs.
Moreover, standards for secure verification in distributed ledgers outline how verification should occur in blockchain platforms and similar systems. Establishing process logic and collaboration within the supply chain will help facilitate efficient data-driven processes between stakeholders.
This transport ecosystem is open to all potential stakeholders interested in participating. The crucial point is that control through entry facilities standards should be established in advance. This means that requirements will be set from a simple instrument to a sensor network to allow stakeholders from different business groups to collaborate within the supply chain. Similarly, this will apply to the information gateways used to transmit data. The blockchain will be used to verify, store, and execute data. The advantage of this system is that various companies can participate in the supply chain within this ecosystem, even those whose technical conditions do not allow them to procure expensive IoT information systems. The benefit of this ecosystem will be that small carriers who do not have a connection to online data transmission can enter or report the required data via certified devices (e.g. traditional upload via a web interface or a smartphone app). The standards and recommendations will thus guide them to participate in the supply chain using distributed ledgers, such as blockchain.
The ecosystem offers potential benefits to all stakeholders. For small carriers, the opportunity to participate in the interconnected network and attract new customers.
Supply chain consortium authorities need to increase the openness of the supply process as I attract new carriers. Regulatory authorities will be able to exercise regulatory oversight of companies more efficiently and quickly. The tangible supply chain will be more open, unified and frictionless if it is not limited to a single blockchain platform or similar distributed ledger, which may have interesting applications on a global scale.
Multiple options exist for verifying data on the blockchain or similar distributed ledger technology. One option involves storing data at a specific time interval while the technology stores it. In this scenario, the system verifies all data received from the devices. The disadvantages are system overload and the need to confirm all data. The second option will only store the important predefined data based on the required standards. Each data verification and transaction incurs a fee to the system, which can be significant for large transactions. Also, data have to be verified by the consensus mechanism.
The consensus mechanism in blockchain is based on meeting specific criteria, such as maintaining the correct temperature during food transportation. Once this data is confirmed, it is stored in a block and can trigger other actions like payment or offering pre-packaged food to customers. The consensus can also be used to create a loyalty program, where companies that meet the transport requirements are favoured for future transport and promoted for their reliability and quality of service. This collective of mirror node operators and users use an application that deals with private or proprietary data but can benefit from the fast processing, decentralised trust, and immutable record provided by a public ordering service.
The blockchain-based consensus may consist of the following steps:
  • the client app submits the smart contract/transaction,
  • the main net node is checking the necessary information,
  • the node provides information to the network,
  • the network determines the order and consensus time-stamp of the event,
  • the node produces a transaction record that includes a payload, topic, and order,
  • the mirror node listens for records,
  • the mirror node or nodes analyses transaction details,
  • the client app communicates with the mirror node to execute the transaction.
In our case, this ecosystem is not dependent on only one platform; the aim is to make it universal and usable for multiple platforms. Therefore, the final consensus may differ. The challenge will be enabling data sharing and validation across multiple blockchain-based platforms. In our case study, we have used the Hedera network.
The client application will generate a transaction, enabling it to incorporate a message and subject. The message may encompass a particular operation, solely consisting of a hash, or be any other byte array pertinent to the client program. Every application must utilise one or more subjects. The transaction can be delivered to one or more mainnet nodes like other services. The mainnet node will verify that the transaction contains the required information, such as signature(s), payment, and inputs. It will then confirm to the client application that the transaction has passed the precheck stage.
The example output of the file creation in the Hedera network:
  • Account Id: 0.0.3994950
  • fileCreateTxId: 0.0.3591751@1712681776.049011113
  • txExplorerUrl: https://hashscan.io/testnet/transaction/0.0.3591751@1712681776.049011113
  • localFileContents: The required temperature during transport was 5.2 Celsius. This is to the requirements.
  • networkFileContents: The required temperature during transport was 5.2 Celsius. This is to the requirements.
The transaction is possibly verified in the ledger explorer; in this case, we have used Hashscan.io.

5. Discussion and Further Work

In our paper, we addressed the challenge of small carriers being responsible for transporting perishable goods and explored the potential of using blockchain technology in the supply chain.
One of the main issues with smaller vehicles performing shorter delivery tasks is measuring and maintaining temperatures in the transport space. We suggest implementing an online monitoring system to retain records for temperature compliance checks to address this. Temperature monitoring equipment directly onto vehicles with a minimum of three checkpoints (at the refrigeration unit, centre of the vehicle, and doors) would allow monitoring of the required temperatures.
Continuous temperature measurement is carried out in the semi-trailer for semi-trailers if the vehicle is equipped with a refrigeration unit and temperature recorder. Telematics devices are also installed in semi-trailers, allowing temperature recording and online monitoring and control throughout the entire transport period. This is the only part of the transport chain where online temperature monitoring is enabled and is accessible to third parties by agreement. Transparency, quick data verification, and decentralised features are desirable attributes for various applications. For example, in addition to managing data quickly, the pharmaceutical industry also evaluates and verifies data from different sensors. Assessing your reasons for developing decentralised applications before choosing an innovative contract platform is essential. Differences in platform features and capabilities could affect the functionality of an app and the tasks that users can perform with it. Ethereum and Solana platforms incentivise infrastructure development by using cryptocurrency tokens. Private trading partners may choose to construct or lease their infrastructure and are highly motivated to optimise transactions and enhance transparency.
We did not focus on security but examined the blockchain’s applicability in the supply chain. So, what will attract potential stakeholders to use this technology in the supply chain? There is still a gap between scientific and research fields, where blockchain is seen as having potential for the future. However, there is still some distrust among business stakeholders regarding adopting blockchain technology. There are still many areas that will need to be explored in terms of the relationship between blockchain and the supply chain:
Challenges for small carriers:
The specific challenges for small carriers in adopting blockchain technology are:
  • Transformation and adaptation to market needs,
  • Modernising the fleet,
  • Testing new equipment,
  • Introducing the new approach to meet the industry criteria,
  • Provide feedback to supply chain consortia to enable efficient data verification.
Small carriers can also be incentivised to participate in the blockchain supply chain through financial and non-financial incentives and benefits, offering participation in a larger market.
Integration with existing systems and Interoperability: To effectively integrate blockchain technology into existing supply chain systems, it is necessary to ensure seamless interoperability with other technologies such as ERP, CRM, and IoT. This process can be complex since supply chains involve multiple parties, each using different systems and technologies. To overcome this challenge, it may be necessary to develop standards and protocols that enable smooth communication and data exchange between these systems and blockchain platforms.
Regulatory Compliance: Compliance with relevant regulations and industry standards governing data privacy, security, and consumer protection. Compliance with regulations such as GDPR (General Data Protection Regulation) or HIPAA (Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act) may be necessary depending on the industry and geographic location.
Governance Structure: Establishing transparent governance helps maintain trust among blockchain participants, with oversight over consensus mechanisms, validation rules, and dispute resolution procedures.
Continuous Monitoring and Evaluation: Regularly monitor the performance and effectiveness of the blockchain implementation and be prepared to adapt and refine the system based on feedback and evolving business needs.
Public or private: We expect there to be concerns regarding whether the platform should be public or private. Companies that already work together and have established norms can more easily adjust to a private platform. On the other hand, companies will need to develop themselves on public platforms and adapt to exchanging data. Private platforms may be implemented more quickly than public ones because they can develop specific rules. [61] Additionally, hybrid networks may be used.
Collaboration and Participation: Successful implementation often requires collaboration among multiple stakeholders involved in the supply chain. All stakeholders must be willing to participate and share data on the blockchain network.
Security: Although blockchain is considered a secure technology for processing and storing data, there may be attempts to test its vulnerabilities. Pennekamp et al. [62] discussed various scenarios from a security perspective. While blockchain offers inherent security features such as immutability and cryptographic verification, ensuring the privacy and security of sensitive data on the blockchain remains a concern. Organisations must implement appropriate measures to protect confidential information and comply with data protection regulations. Lohmer et al. [63] presented an agent-based simulation study to identify the potential risks and weak scenarios of blockchain usage. A technologically proven environment that represents the basic framework into which data is collected. It consists of industry-trusted sensors and technologies resistant to abuse or hacking. Implement robust security measures to protect sensitive data and prevent unauthorised access. Consider privacy-enhancing techniques such as zero-knowledge proofs or selective disclosure to protect confidential business information.
Data and input certification standardisation: Establish standardised data formats and protocols to ensure compatibility and interoperability across the supply chain network. Consistency in data formats enhances the efficiency of data sharing and processing.
Credibility: Confidence in technology is vital, particularly in the case of blockchain technology. Some companies may not fully trust blockchain technology because of the limited knowledge among their data engineers, analysts, information system architects, and programmers. The primary challenge is to identify the system in which the technology can be presented to ensure its reliability. [64].
Cost: Implementing blockchain technology can be expensive, especially for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). Costs may include investment in technology, training, and ongoing maintenance. Additionally, there may be costs associated with data storage and transaction fees on the blockchain network.
Scalability: Blockchain networks, particularly public ones, can struggle with scalability issues as transactions increase. This is a significant concern for supply chains involving large transactions. Ensuring that the blockchain network can handle the scale of the supply chain operations is essential.
Environmental impact: Due to the nature of some platforms, including cryptocurrency mining, the current issue of sustainability and the environment’s future is essential. The operations and data transactions performed on early platforms such as BITCOIN involve high energy consumption, which is not sustainable if blockchain technology is to be further developed. Therefore, there is room for more sustainable forms of blockchain that potential users will consider [65].
Incompatibility of blockchain platforms: Several platforms currently have specific characteristics [66]. The problem is what will happen if different consortia have incompatible platforms. For this purpose, it will be necessary to create the so-called converter or translator that would allow information to be exchanged between platforms.

6. Conclusion

Integrating blockchain technology into the supply chain is challenging and poses several obstacles to different stakeholders. Despite the significant amount of scientific research conducted in this area, identifying the supply chain as an attractive area to use multiple blockchain platforms, some concerns and barriers hinder the adoption of this technology. Apart from the barriers in technology and security, the existing systems and ease of penetration are major obstacles that prevent the wider adoption of blockchain technology in the supply chain. Many supply chain organisations already have established systems to track and manage their operations. Integrating blockchain technology with these existing systems can be complex and may require significant changes to infrastructure and processes. Another important factor that hinders adoption is the cost of implementation. Users and stakeholders expect blockchain technology to add value to facilitate the processes themselves and to add value that, in collaboration with artificial intelligence and IoT, can bring tangible benefits to the supply chain. We conducted a test on temperature measurement methods during transportation. We have developed an ecosystem approach to help stakeholders determine if this technology is suitable for their supply chain. The ecosystem will consist of certified input devices that enable data collection for each stakeholder group. The same applies to all communication channels and gateways through which data will be transmitted. We believe that storing this data on the blockchain is the simplest solution. In fact, there are currently a number of viable approaches to operating a blockchain that can be used by supply chain stakeholders. However, the main challenge is to create an attractive ecosystem that can be used by all supply chain stakeholders, and that allows stakeholders with traditional manual or low-tech data control to participate.

Author Contributions

Conceptualisation, MG and MC..; methodology, MC; MC and DR; formal analysis, MC; writing—original draft preparation, MG; writing—review and editing, DR; Data, D.R.; supervision, MG All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Human control within the process of transport or delivery.
Figure 1. Human control within the process of transport or delivery.
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Figure 2. The decentralised supply chain based on the blockchain.
Figure 2. The decentralised supply chain based on the blockchain.
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Figure 3. Manual temperature control of goods.
Figure 3. Manual temperature control of goods.
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Figure 7. The control measuring equipment Hadex and Testo H2D.
Figure 7. The control measuring equipment Hadex and Testo H2D.
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Figure 8. Adjusting the ALEX Original TRE24 vehicle-mounted refrigeration unit.
Figure 8. Adjusting the ALEX Original TRE24 vehicle-mounted refrigeration unit.
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Figure 9. Adjusting the ALEX Original TRE24 vehicle-mounted refrigeration unit.
Figure 9. Adjusting the ALEX Original TRE24 vehicle-mounted refrigeration unit.
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Figure 10. Overview of temperature during the transport process.
Figure 10. Overview of temperature during the transport process.
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Figure 11. Principe of the data flow from various types of control.
Figure 11. Principe of the data flow from various types of control.
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Figure 11. The verification of transaction in Hashscan.io .
Figure 11. The verification of transaction in Hashscan.io .
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Table 2. Comparison of supply chain activities and monitoring of temperature during various events.
Table 2. Comparison of supply chain activities and monitoring of temperature during various events.
Supply chain activities Monitoring of temperature Application of Blockchain
Storage of goods Full-surface measurement in the warehouse or destructive measurement Online monitoring and recording in the “storage of goods” block
Storage at production sites Without measurement, e.g. orchard Temperature measurement and recording when goods are loaded
Preparation for transport Goods wrapped in the required packaging material previously temperature-measured non-contact or destructively Temperature measurement and recording when inspecting goods before loading
Loading into the vehicle During loading, a temperature change occurs in the space between the storage area and the cargo area. Placing the measuring device on the goods at loading and automatic recording in the “loading” block
Transport of goods Monitoring the temperature of the items being transported in the vehicle Placing multiple measuring devices and sending the current temperature information to the “transport” block
Unloading from the vehicle Heat transfer occurs between the cargo and storage areas during unloading. Placing the measuring device on the goods at loading and automatic recording in the “unloading” block
Final storage and sale to the consumer or use of the transported raw material to produce other goods Temperature recording is also required in these areas Online monitoring and recording in the “storage of goods” block
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