Prerpints.org logo
Preprint
Review

This version is not peer-reviewed.

Neuropsychological Consequences of Massive Trauma: Implications and Clinical Interventions

A peer-reviewed version of this preprint was published in:
Medicina 2023, 59(12), 2128. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina59122128

Submitted:

01 November 2023

Posted:

22 November 2023

You are already at the latest version

Abstract
Traumatic events, especially massive trauma resulting from catastrophic incidents, wars, or severe abuse, can elicit significant neuropsychological alterations, with profound implications for cognitive, emotional, and behavioral functioning. This mini review delineates the primary neural changes post-trauma and underscores the importance of timely neuropsychological and clinical interventions. Specific brain regions, including the amygdala and prefrontal cortex, undergo physiological changes that can lead to memory impairments, attention deficits, and emotional disturbances. PTSD, a commonly diagnosed condition post-trauma, exemplifies the intricate relationship between trauma and memory processing. Furthermore, the concept of neuroplasticity, the brain's inherent ability to adapt and rewire, offers hope for recovery. Current clinical interventions, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy, mindfulness practices, and biofeedback, leverage this neuroplastic potential to foster healing. The review underscores the vital importance of early intervention to mitigate long term neuropsychological impacts, emphasizing the role of timely and targeted clinical interventions. The synthesis of this knowledge is crucial for clinicians, allowing for informed therapeutic approaches that holistically address both the physiological and psychological dimensions of trauma.
Keywords: 
Massive trauma
;  
Neuropsychology
;  
Neuroplasticity
;  
Clinical Intervention
;  
Cognitive Rehabilitation
;  
therapeutic interventions
Subject: 
Medicine and Pharmacology  -   Neuroscience and Neurology

Introduction

Studies on massive traumas, such as natural disasters, wars, or pandemics, are especially relevant today [1]. These large-scale events have collective implications, affecting entire communities or populations [2]. Understanding the neuropsychological effects of such massive traumas can guide public health interventions and policy decisions. The aftermath of major traumatic events, including natural disasters, wartime experiences, or personal experiences of abuse, is not limited to psychological distress, but also encompasses profound neuropsychological implications. Such events can impact brain regions pivotal for memory, emotion regulation, and threat detection. This mini review aims to elucidate these neuropsychological changes and advocate for specific interventions.
Neuropsychology delves into understanding the intricate connection between the brain’s functionality and our behaviors [3]. When an individual undergoes significant traumatic incidents be it natural disasters, wartime experiences, intense personal abuse, or any deeply distressing circumstance, neuropsychological perspectives shed light on the potential repercussions these events have on the brain, leading to subsequent changes in behavior and cognitive processes [4,5].

2. Methods

The present study offers a narrative review focusing on the neuropsychological effects, implications, and treatments of massive trauma. It seeks to understand the profound changes and challenges that arise in the brain’s structures and functions due to large-scale traumatic events and the potential avenues for intervention and recovery.
The review employs a thorough approach, synthesizing and analyzing existing literature that deals directly with the neuropsychological repercussions of massive trauma. A systematic search of scholarly sources was conducted across leading databases such as PubMed, PsycINFO, Scopus, and Google Scholar, CINAHL, Pertinent keywords employed included “massive trauma,” “neuropsychological effects,” “neuropsychological interventions,” “cognitive behavioral therapy,” “neuroplasticity” To be included in our review, studies had to be written in English and focus explicitly on the neuropsychological aftermath of severe traumas. This encompasses not only the direct consequences of such events but also the broader implications these traumas have on the brain’s structural and functional dynamics. Furthermore, we were particularly interested in research highlighting therapeutic approaches and interventions that are specifically tailored to foster recovery from significant trauma. Only studies published between 1995 and 2023 were considered to ensure the relevance and timeliness of our review.‘clinical interventions’ therapeutic interventions
Articles were screened carefully based on their titles and abstracts to identify those that deeply explored the neuropsychological implications of massive trauma. Following this, a rigorous evaluation of the selected articles was carried out to distill critical insights about the challenges massive trauma poses to the brain and the potential pathways for holistic recovery.
Throughout this review, considerable effort was devoted to consolidating findings from the research on neuropsychological effects and therapeutic interventions for massive trauma. This narrative review aimed to provide a detailed and comprehensive overview of our current understanding of massive trauma’s toll on the brain. The insights derived from this review significantly contribute to our grasp of the complexities associated with massive trauma, emphasizing the crucial role of early interventions and the potential for neuroplastic recovery.

Results

What is massive trauma?

Massive, or else mass trauma, while not having a singular operational definition due to the varied nature of traumatic events, can be viewed from several perspectives. It might be quantitatively defined, such as by the sheer number of victims from catastrophic incidents like earthquakes, war, or major terrorist acts [6,7]. Alternatively, mass trauma might refer to enduring and widespread traumatic conditions, seen in places like high-crime neighborhoods or refugee or concentration camps. Unprecedented events, like the use of bio-chemical weapons, might lead to widespread panic beyond their direct harm. A unifying aspect of these varied instances is a marked disparity between demands and resources, and between the trauma and potential for recovery. Essentially, mass trauma manifests when adaptive strategies falter, bringing vulnerabilities to the forefront, at least temporarily. In the following sections, some of the most important neuropsychological aspects will be delineated.

Neuropsychological Consequences of Massive Trauma

Massive trauma, especially when resulting in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), brings with it a series of profound neuropsychological consequences [8,9]. A predominant concern in these trauma-affected individuals is the evident impairment in cognitive functions, mainly in attention and working memory. These cognitive domains, which are foundational to efficient executive functioning, appear compromised, thereby posing challenges in daily task execution and decision-making processes [10,11,12]. Furthermore, the executive functioning, encompassing critical faculties like mental agility and cognitive control, is seen to deteriorate in PTSD patients. Such impairments, intrinsically tied to the trauma, make adaptive responses to changing circumstances and command over one’s cognitive processes daunting tasks [13,14,15]. Another significant fallout of massive trauma is a decrement in information processing speed. This implies that trauma-affected individuals, especially those with PTSD, might exhibit a lag in cognitive task processing relative to unaffected individuals [16,17]. These neuropsychological repercussions highlight the encompassing and debilitating nature of massive trauma, illustrating that its effects aren’t confined merely to emotional and psychological realms but also seep into cognitive territories, complicating recovery and day-to-day adaptability. More specifically the following consequences are observed:

1. Neurological Alterations Following Traumatic Experiences:

Massive trauma can lead to physiological changes in the brain, particularly in regions associated with memory, emotion regulation, and threat detection [18]. Besides, areas associated with impulse control and decision-making are affected. Notably, the amygdala, a pivotal region for recognizing dangers and producing responses of fear, may exhibit increased activity [19]. Growing evidence indicates that PTSD can be understood, to some extent, as a disorder marked by the malfunctioning of fear regulation. This perspective is especially significant given the crucial role of the amygdala, a part of the brain intrinsically linked with fear responses in mammals. Furthermore, amygdala interplays with regions like the hippocampus and medial prefrontal cortex [20].
Conversely, the prefrontal cortex, involved in decision making and impulse control, might show reduced activity, leading to difficulties in emotion regulation [21,22]. Specifically, this brain region, in conjunction with areas like the basal ganglia, is vital for regulating impulsive actions. Following trauma, individuals might exhibit increased impulsive behaviors, partly because trauma can disrupt the typical functioning of the prefrontal cortex [23]. When trauma impacts the prefrontal cortex’s normal operation, it can lead to an imbalance where speed of response is prioritized over accuracy, leading to heightened impulsivity [24].
Additionally, these cognitive challenges could be tied to disruptions in the brain’s dorsal prefrontal networks. Such impairments can influence the overall clinical presentation of PTSD, prompting individuals to adopt coping mechanisms like avoidance [25].

2. Memory Impairments:

Severe traumatic events can have a distinct impact on how memories are processed. Conditions such as PTSD are indicative of this, where affected individuals might undergo vivid recollections [26]. Furthermore, a traumatic event may lead to the occurrence of intrusive memories, especially shortly after the trauma [27]. While these memories often decrease over time, they can be distressing and impair daily function, even in the absence of a formal psychological disorder diagnosis. Intrusive memories are central to conditions like PTSD and Acute Stress Disorder (ASD). However, they might also serve adaptive purposes, such as acting as warning signals or aiding in autobiographical memory coherence. Addressing these memories is essential in trauma-related prevention and early intervention strategies. Alternatively, there might be instances where they face difficulty in remembering the event [26].

3. Emotional Consequences:

Emotionally, there might be increased symptoms of depression, anxiety, and heightened emotional reactivity [28]. A significant aspect of understanding posttraumatic stress reactions is the challenge in emotion regulation [29]. Those with PTSD often struggle with managing their negative emotions, which is essential for handling the intense emotional reactions resulting from trauma reminders [9] Evidence highlights that non-acceptance of negative emotions can exacerbate trauma-related distress, leading to secondary emotions like guilt or shame. This non-acceptance might also divert resources from adaptive behaviors that enhance overall well-being. Furthermore, difficulty in emotion regulation is associated with avoidance strategies. Issues in identifying and describing emotions post-trauma, termed as secondary alexithymia, have been linked to PTSD and can act as a form of avoidance, further intensifying posttraumatic stress reactions. Overall, challenges in emotion regulation appear to play a pivotal role in maintaining posttraumatic stress symptoms.
In essence, understanding the neuropsychological consequences of massive trauma is vital for both clinicians and survivors. It not only elucidates the profound brain changes that can occur but also guides therapeutic interventions to support healing and recovery.

Neuropsychological and clinical interventions

The brain possesses an inherent ability to adapt and change, known as neuroplasticity [30]. Neuropsychological interventions post-trauma can leverage this property, using therapeutic techniques to promote healing and rewire maladaptive brain patterns [31]. This can involve cognitive behavioral therapy, mindfulness practices, and even biofeedback to help trauma survivors regain control and improve their cognitive functions.
Early neuropsychological and clinical interventions after a traumatic event can be crucial. Immediate support and therapy can potentially mitigate the long-term neuropsychological impacts of the trauma, helping the brain to establish healthier patterns and reducing the risk of chronic conditions like PTSD [31,32]. Individuals affected by trauma should be supported in a manner that is respectful, patient, and understanding. A secure and safe environment, where one’s feelings are acknowledged and validated, should be provided [33]. It’s advocated for active, non- judgmental listening to be employed, allowing for an uninhibited expression of experiences and emotions. It’s deemed important that survivors of trauma are reassured that emotional responses like fear, disconnection, or anxiety are natural after traumatic events [34]. Additionally, it is suggested that survivors be gently encouraged to seek professional help if they feel ready, as those specialize in trauma can provide the proper care needed. The importance of self-care is also advised to be remembered for those offering support; maintaining one’s mental well-being is crucial in effectively aiding others.
Neuropsychological interventions focus on addressing the cognitive, emotional, and behavioral consequences of trauma by harnessing the brain’s ability to adapt and change. Below are some targeted clinical interventions for the neuropsychological effects of massive trauma:

Cognitive Rehabilitation:

Effective cognitive rehabilitation after trauma often involves a combination of strategic approaches [35]. One such method is goal setting, where tasks are broken down into manageable increments. By systematically prioritizing these segments, especially when focusing on domains like concentration or recall that might have been affected, individuals can navigate their daily routines with increased efficiency and reduced cognitive strain.
Moreover, memory, a commonly affected cognitive function after trauma, can be bolstered through various augmentation techniques. Mnemonic strategies have been widely recognized for improving retention [36]. However, in today’s digital age, many also find solace in electronic reminders from devices like smartphones. For those who lean towards a more tangible approach, traditional note-taking or jotting down reminders serves as an invaluable tool in strengthening memory.
Diving deeper into advanced therapeutic interventions, biofeedback and neurofeedback have emerged as promising avenues [37]. These techniques, by offering real-time insights into physiological responses, allow individuals to gain a deeper understanding of their body’s reactions. Specifically, neurofeedback zeroes in on the intricacies of brain wave dynamics. The ultimate aim here is to correct any irregular patterns tied to traumatic experiences, forging a path towards comprehensive recovery.

CognitiveBehavioral Therapies (CBT):

In the realm of psychotherapeutic treatments for significant trauma, Cognitive Behavioral Therapies (CBTs) stand out as particularly adept at addressing the deep-rooted cognitive patterns that exacerbate emotional distress and maladaptive behaviors [38]
A cornerstone of CBT’s approach is cognitive therapy, which methodically steers patients toward recognizing that beliefs formed during profoundly traumatic experiences might lack a factual foundation [39,40]. By shedding light on these potentially distorted perceptions, therapists assist patients in detaching from overwhelmingly negative interpretations of their experiences. Meanwhile, cognitive restructuring dives deeper into these misaligned thought patterns, prompting patients to challenge and recalibrate such thoughts [41] This method proves invaluable in altering tendencies to over-generalize negative experiences and in fostering a healthier, more balanced understanding of traumatic events.
One primary method within CBT is patient psychoeducation: by grounding patients in a solid understanding of their trauma-induced symptoms, they gain the tools to navigate and mitigate their stress reactions more effectively. Furthermore, early interventions in CBT emphasize the importance of anxiety management skills [42]. Progressive muscle relaxation and controlled breathing exercises, for instance, are pivotal techniques that empower patients to quell surges of acute distress that often accompany massive trauma.
Another potent method under the CBT umbrella is exposure therapy [43]. Aimed at aiding patients in directly confronting and methodically processing their traumatic memories, this approach, while intense, has demonstrated its efficacy, especially when tailored carefully to the individual’s readiness and resilience. However, it’s imperative to note that due to its confronting nature, it must be approached with caution and might not be the initial choice for all individuals grappling with massive trauma. Across the board, the multifaceted methodologies of CBT have consistently shown promise, with research affirming its effectiveness in addressing the profound and often complex aftermath of severe trauma, especially in conditions like Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and Acute Stress Disorder (ASD).
CBT for post-traumatic stress disorder demonstrated comparable effectiveness to eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR), as indicated by Bisson et al. [33]. Both these treatments surpassed conventional treatments, waitlists, or alternative therapies like supportive counseling in addressing post-traumatic stress disorder [44]. Nonetheless, the role of the eye-movement technique as a vital component of the treatment remains a subject of debate.

Psychoeducation:

Equipping trauma survivors with knowledge about their experiences can be a transformative step in the healing journey. Psychoeducation demystifies the physical, emotional, and cognitive responses to trauma, enabling individuals to contextualize their symptoms within a broader neurobiological framework [45]. By understanding the brain’s adaptive responses to traumatic events, survivors can reinterpret their reactions – such as heightened alertness or dissociation – as natural protective mechanisms rather than defects. This perspective shift can significantly alleviate feelings of guilt, confusion, and isolation.

Mindfulness

Mindfulness is a deeply therapeutic practice centered around present-moment awareness. For those grappling with the shadows of trauma, mindfulness techniques can serve as an anchor, helping them disengage from distressing memories and grounding them in the now. Two notable therapeutic approaches that seamlessly incorporate mindfulness are Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) and Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) [46]. MBSR, typically an eight-week program, integrates meditation practices with psychoeducation, teaching individuals to cultivate awareness of their bodily sensations, feelings, and thoughts. On the other hand, MBCT adapts traditional cognitive behavioral strategies to include mindfulness exercises, assisting individuals in recognizing and breaking the cycle of chronic negative thought patterns linked to trauma.

Social Skills Training:

Interpersonal dynamics can become skewed post-trauma, with survivors often grappling with trust issues, difficulties in expressing emotions, or heightened sensitivities to social cues [47]. Social skills training, a structured therapeutic approach, seeks to restore balance in this domain [48]. Through role-playing, feedback sessions, and guided interactions, individuals are taught effective communication strategies, assertiveness skills, and techniques for interpreting and responding to social nuances. Over time, this training can bolster confidence in social situations and pave the way for more meaningful relationships.

Group Therapy:

Group therapy is an essential modality for individuals who have experienced massive trauma [49]. Trauma can breed feelings of profound isolation, making group therapy a salient therapeutic modality. Within the safe confines of a group setting, survivors discover they aren’t alone in their experiences. They can share stories, exchange coping techniques, and draw strength from communal resilience. Moreover, witnessing peers’ progress and recovery can inspire hope, reinforcing the belief that healing is attainable.
Engaging with others who have endured similar profound traumas provides a unique, shared understanding, fostering a sense of community and reducing feelings of isolation [50,51]. These sessions are structured to offer safety and support, allowing participants to delve into their traumatic experiences while being grounded in a collective environment. By interacting with fellow survivors, participants can glean new coping strategies and perspectives, facilitating corrective emotional experiences. The potency of this therapy lies not just in the shared narratives but also in witnessing resilience, which can be pivotal in the healing process. However, despite the recognized benefits, research on the exact nuances and outcomes of group therapy for massive trauma remains limited, underscoring the need for more comprehensive studies.
Addressing massive trauma requires a multifaceted approach, recognizing the profound uniqueness of each individual’s experience and healing journey [52,53,54]. Relying on a singular treatment often falls short; instead, a judicious blend of evidence-based interventions, deeply rooted in understanding the survivor’s trauma narrative, holds the promise of true recovery. It’s paramount to craft interventions tailored to each individual’s distinct needs and resilience patterns [55,56,57,58,59,60]. As we conclude, the aspiration is not just to heal, but to equip survivors with the cognitive and emotional tools to reclaim their lives and navigate the multifarious challenges borne from their traumatic experiences.

Pharmacotherapy:

The psychological scars of trauma can sometimes necessitate pharmacological interventions to complement therapeutic endeavors [61]. Specific medications, particularly selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), have demonstrated efficacy in ameliorating trauma-induced mood and anxiety disorders. Beyond SSRIs, other classes of drugs, such as benzodiazepines or antipsychotics, may be prescribed based on individual symptomatology. It’s crucial, however, that any pharmacotherapy regimen be closely monitored by a psychiatrist to ensure optimal outcomes and minimize potential side effects.

Discussion

Severe trauma, particularly when culminating in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), manifests a range of deep-rooted neuropsychological effects [8,9]. Notably, individuals impacted by trauma frequently exhibit disruptions in core cognitive capacities, such as attention and working memory. These vital components of cognitive function, integral to optimal executive operations, seem vulnerable to trauma-induced dysfunctions, leading to potential obstacles in routine task management and cognitive decision-making [10,11,12]. Beyond this, there’s a marked regression in executive functioning among PTSD sufferers, encapsulating essential cognitive aspects like mental flexibility and cognitive regulation. As a result, these individuals may grapple with swiftly adapting to new situations and maintaining cognitive coherence [13,14,15]. Moreover, an often under-discussed consequence of profound trauma is the reduced pace of information processing. In practical terms, this suggests that those affected by trauma, especially PTSD patients, may demonstrate a cognitive processing delay compared to their unaffected counterparts [16,17]. These neuropsychological implications underscore the pervasive and incapacitating influence of severe trauma. It is evident that trauma’s repercussions extend beyond emotional and psychological distress, intruding into cognitive functionalities, thereby exacerbating challenges in both recovery and everyday adaptability. The following critical observations can be made:
The interventions presented warrant an analytical evaluation, particularly given the deep-rooted neurobiological repercussions of trauma.
Cognitive behavioral therapies are empirically robust in addressing trauma symptoms [38,39]. Psychoeducation undoubtedly empowers survivors, but it’s a double-edged sword. Offering survivors a neurobiological understanding of their trauma reactions can be enlightening [45]. Yet, there’s a risk of overwhelming them or inadvertently medicalizing their lived experiences, especially when their emotional reality may not neatly align with clinical explanations.
Mindfulness, lauded for its therapeutic effects, poses challenges for trauma survivors. Engaging with the present can sometimes confront survivors with intrusive traumatic memories [46]. The neuropsychological reality of trauma survivors frequently sees the past invading the present, which challenges the very essence of mindfulness.
Social Skills Training has its merits, but its practical application can be complex [48]. Structured therapeutic sessions might not truly capture the unpredictability of real-world social interactions. Considering trauma’s impact on the brain’s social cognition pathways, the efficacy of these trainings in neurologically recalibrating these disrupted networks warrants exploration.
Group therapy offers a communal resilience narrative [50]. Yet, its neuropsychological implications are intricate. Sharing trauma narratives in a group can either amplify or attenuate the neural pathways tied to traumatic memories. Furthermore, group dynamics are unpredictable; communal resilience, while powerful, must be approached with caution to avoid inadvertent retraumatization.
Tailoring trauma interventions isn’t just about understanding the individual’s trauma narrative; it necessitates neuropsychological literacy. Trauma leaves its mark on the brain, making it imperative for interventions to address both these dimensions congruently.
Pharmacotherapy, rooted in neuropsychology, offers symptom alleviation [61]. However, there are concerns about its long-term implications. Medications like SSRIs target neurotransmitter dysregulation, but the brain’s neurochemistry is multifaceted. Introducing external chemicals might dampen symptoms, but the true healing of neural pathways remains a subject of scrutiny.
In conclusion, trauma interventions, while promising, must be critically appraised, especially in the context of the intricate neuropsychological repercussions of trauma. Effective therapeutic endeavors should address both the psychological and neurological manifestations of trauma.

Conclusion

The profound neuropsychological effects of trauma underscore the intricate relationship between our experiences and brain functioning. With trauma impacting crucial brain regions and disrupting neurochemical balances, it presents both challenges and opportunities. The brain’s inherent neuroplasticity offers a promising avenue for recovery, emphasizing the importance of timely and evidence-based interventions. As we delve deeper into understanding trauma’s multifaceted impacts, it becomes paramount to invest in further research, especially concerning massive traumas affecting larger communities. Such knowledge will not only elucidate the complexities of the human brain but also provide a roadmap for holistic healing and resilience in the face of adversity.

References

  1. Naushad VA, Bierens JJ, Nishan KP, Firjeeth CP, Mohammad OH, Maliyakkal AM, et al. A Systematic Review of the Impact of Disaster on the Mental Health of Medical Responders. Prehospital and Disaster Medicine. 2019 Oct 18;34(6):632–43. [CrossRef]
  2. Cherry KE, Sampson L, Galea S, Marks LD, Nezat PF, Baudoin KH, et al. Optimism and Hope After Multiple Disasters: Relationships to Health-Related Quality of Life. Journal of Loss and Trauma. 2016 May 11;22(1):61–76. [CrossRef]
  3. Heilman KM. In: Clinical neuropsychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2012.
  4. Vasterling JJ, Brewin CR, editors. Neuropsychology of PTSD: Biological, cognitive, and clinical perspectives. Guilford Press; 2005.
  5. Al Jowf GI, Ahmed ZT, An N, Reijnders RA, Ambrosino E, Rutten BP, et al. A public health perspective of post-traumatic stress disorder. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022;19(11):6474. [CrossRef]
  6. Shalev, Arieh Y., Rivka Tuval-Mashiach, and Hilit Hadar. Posttraumatic stress disorder as a result of mass trauma.Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 2004; 65: 4-10.
  7. Bonanno GA, Brewin CR, Kaniasty K, Greca AML. Weighing the Costs of Disaster. Psychological Science in the Public Interest. 2010 Jan;11(1):1–49.
  8. Vasterling, J.J., Grande, L., Graefe, A.C., Alvarez, J.A. (2019). Neuropsychological Assessment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). In: Armstrong, C., Morrow, L. (eds) Handbook of Medical Neuropsychology. Springer, Cham. [CrossRef]
  9. Somasundaram DJ, Sivayokan S. War Trauma in a Civilian Population. British Journal of Psychiatry. 1994 Oct;165(4):524–7. [CrossRef]
  10. Bremner JD. Traumatic stress: effects on the brain. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience. 2006 Dec 31;8(4):445–61. [CrossRef]
  11. McNally R. Cognitive abnormalities in post-traumatic stress disorder. Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 2006 Jun;10(6):271–7. [CrossRef]
  12. van der Kolk B. Posttraumatic stress disorder and the nature of trauma. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience. 2000 Mar 31;2(1):7–22.
  13. McCabe DP, Roediger HL, McDaniel MA, Balota DA, Hambrick DZ. The relationship between working memory capacity and executive functioning: Evidence for a common executive attention construct. Neuropsychology. 2010 Mar;24(2):222–43. [CrossRef]
  14. Schuitevoerder S, Rosen JW, Twamley EW, Ayers CR, Sones H, Lohr JB, et al. A meta-analysis of cognitive functioning in older adults with PTSD. Journal of Anxiety Disorders. 2013 Aug;27(6):550–8. [CrossRef]
  15. Scott JC, Matt GE, Wrocklage KM, Crnich C, Jordan J, Southwick SM, et al. A quantitative meta-analysis of neurocognitive functioning in posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Bulletin. 2015 Jan;141(1):105–40. [CrossRef]
  16. Aupperle RL, Melrose AJ, Stein MB, Paulus MP. Executive function and PTSD: Disengaging from trauma. Neuropharmacology. 2012 Feb;62(2):686–94. [CrossRef]
  17. Woon FL, Farrer TJ, Braman CR, Mabey JK, Hedges DW. A meta-analysis of the relationship between symptom severity of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and executive function. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry. 2016 Nov 22;22(1):1–16. [CrossRef]
  18. Bremner JD. Does stress damage the brain? Understanding trauma-related disorders from a mind-body perspective. WW Norton & Company; 2002.
  19. Breiter HC, Etcoff NL, Whalen PJ, Kennedy WA, Rauch SL, Buckner RL, et al. Response and Habituation of the Human Amygdala during Visual Processing of Facial Expression. Neuron. 1996 Nov;17(5):875–87. [CrossRef]
  20. Admon R, Lubin G, Stern O, Rosenberg K, Sela L, Ben-Ami H, et al. Human vulnerability to stress depends on amygdala’s predisposition and hippocampal plasticity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2009 Aug 18;106(33):14120–5. [CrossRef]
  21. Noël X, Van Der Linden M, Bechara A. The neurocognitive mechanisms of decision-making, impulse control, and loss of willpower to resist drugs. Psychiatry (Edgmont). 2006 May 1;3(5):30.
  22. Kim S, Lee D. Prefrontal cortex and impulsive decision making. Biol Psychiatry. 2011;69(12):1140-1146. [CrossRef]
  23. Aupperle RL, Melrose AJ, Stein MB, Paulus MP. Executive function and PTSD: disengaging from trauma. Neuropharmacology. 2012;62(2):686-694. [CrossRef]
  24. Theodoratou M, Gkintoni E, Farmakopoulou I. Executive Functions and Quality of Life in Neurodevelopmental Spectrum. An Outline. Technium Social Sciences Journal. 2023 Jan 8;39:430–9. [CrossRef]
  25. Theodoratou M, Kanellopoulou P, Nikitidis N, Farmakopoulou I. Coping strategies of Health Care Workers during third wave of Covid. European Psychiatry. 2023 Jul 19;66(Suppl 1):S412. [CrossRef]
  26. Toth SL, Cicchetti D. Remembering, forgetting, and the effects of trauma on memory: A developmental psychopathology perspective. Development and Psychopathology. 1998 Dec;10(4):589–605. [CrossRef]
  27. Brewin CR, Gregory JD, Lipton M, Burgess N. Intrusive images in psychological disorders: characteristics, neural mechanisms, and treatment implications. Psychol Rev. 2010;117(1):210. [CrossRef]
  28. Badour CL, Feldner MT. Trauma-related reactivity and regulation of emotion: Associations with posttraumatic stress symptoms. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry. 2013 Mar;44(1):69–76. [CrossRef]
  29. Lee KH, Lee HY, Park I, Lee YJ, Kim N, Jeon S, et al. Neural correlates of emotional reactivity and regulation in traumatized North Korean refugees. Translational Psychiatry. 2021 Sep 3;11(1). [CrossRef]
  30. Davidson RJ, McEwen BS. Social influences on neuroplasticity: stress and interventions to promote wellbeing. Nat Neurosci. 2012;15(5):689695. [CrossRef]
  31. Jak AJ, Crocker LD, Aupperle RL, Clausen A, Bomyea J. Neurocognition in PTSD: Treatment Insights and Implications. In: Behavioral Neurobiology of PTSD Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2016 p. 93–116. [CrossRef]
  32. Pierce ZP, Johnson ER, Kim IA, Lear BE, Mast AM, Black JM. Therapeutic interventions impact brain function and promote post-traumatic growth in adults living with post-traumatic stress disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging studies. Front Psychol. 2023;14:1074972. Published 2023 Feb 9. [CrossRef]
  33. Bisson JI, Ehlers A, Matthews R, Pilling S, Richards D, Turner S. Psychological treatments for chronic post-traumatic stress disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry. 2007 Feb;190(2):97–104. [CrossRef]
  34. Center for Substance Abuse Treatment (US). Trauma-Informed Care in Behavioral Health Services. Rockville (MD): Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (US); 2014. (Treatment Improvement Protocol (TIP) Series, No. 57.) Chapter 3, Understanding the Impact of Trauma. [Internet]. NCBI Bookshelf. 2014 [cited 2023 Oct 28]. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK207191/.
  35. Wilson BA. Cognitive rehabilitation, an integrative neuropsychological approach: Edited by M M Sohlberg and C A Mateer (Pp 492, pound41.95). Guilford Press, New York, 2001. ISBN 1 57230 613 0. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry. 2002 Mar 1;72(3):421a–421.
  36. Sohlberg MM, Mateer CA. Introduction to cognitive rehabilitation: Theory and practice. Guilford Press; 1989.
  37. Hammond DC. Neurofeedback treatment of depression and anxiety. J Adult Dev. 2005;12(23):131137. [CrossRef]
  38. Hofmann SG, Asnaani A, Vonk IJJ, Sawyer AT, Fang A. The Efficacy of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy: A Review of Meta-analyses. Cognitive Therapy and Research. 2012 Jul 31;36(5):427–40. [CrossRef]
  39. Beck AT. Cognitive therapies and emotional disorders. New York: New American Library; 1976.
  40. Bisson J, Andrew M. Psychological treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). In: Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews [Internet]. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd; 2007 [cited 2023 Oct 28]. [CrossRef]
  41. Kliethermes MD, Drewry K, Wamser-Nanney R. Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy. In: Evidence-Based Treatments for Trauma Related Disorders in Children and Adolescents [Internet]. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017 [cited 2023 Oct 28]. p. 167–86. [CrossRef]
  42. Raja S, Hasnain M, Hoersch M, Gove-Yin S, Rajagopalan C. Trauma Informed Care in Medicine. Family & Community Health. 2015 Jul;38(3):216–26. [CrossRef]
  43. Beidel DC, Frueh BC, Neer SM, Bowers CA, Trachik B, Uhde TW, et al. Trauma management therapy with virtual-reality augmented exposure therapy for combat-related PTSD: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Anxiety Disorders. 2019 Jan;61:64–74. [CrossRef]
  44. Shapiro F. Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing: Basic principles, protocols, and procedures. 2nd ed. Guilford Press; 2001.
  45. Brooks SK, Weston D, Wessely S, Greenberg N. Effectiveness and acceptability of brief psychoeducational interventions after potentially traumatic events: A systematic review. European Journal of Psychotraumatology. 2021 Jan 1;12(1). [CrossRef]
  46. de Vibe M, Bjørndal A, Tipton E, Hammerstrøm K, Kowalski K. Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) for Improving Health, Quality of Life, and Social Functioning in Adults. Campbell Systematic Reviews. 8(1):1–127. [CrossRef]
  47. Markowitz JC, Milrod B, Bleiberg K, Marshall RD. Interpersonal Factors in Understanding and Treating Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Journal of Psychiatric Practice. 2009 Mar;15(2):133–40. [CrossRef]
  48. Bellack AS, Mueser KT, Gingerich S, Agresta J. Social skills training for schizophrenia: A stepbystep guide. Guilford Press; 2004.
  49. Schwartze D, Barkowski S, Strauss B, Knaevelsrud C, Rosendahl J. Efficacy of group psychotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorder: Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Psychotherapy Research. 2017 Nov 27;29(4):415–31. [CrossRef]
  50. Yalom ID, Leszcz M. The theory and practice of group psychotherapy. 5th ed. Basic Books; 2005.
  51. Stige SH, Rosenvinge JH, Træen B. A meaningful struggle: Trauma clients’ experiences with an inclusive stabilization group approach. Psychotherapy Research. 2013 Jul;23(4):419–29. [CrossRef]
  52. Davidson J. Drug Therapy of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry. 1992 Mar;160(3):309–14. [CrossRef]
  53. LaCasse M. Rewriting the Narrative With Logotherapy: Review of Man’s Search for Meaningby Viktor E. Frankl. Boston, Beacon Press, 2006, 184 pp., American Journal of Psychiatry Residents’ Journal. 2017 Jul;12(7):12–12.
  54. Shalev AY, Peri T, Canetti L, Schreiber S. Predictors of PTSD in injured trauma survivors: A prospective study. Am J Psychiatry. 1996;153(2):219225. [CrossRef]
  55. Foa EB, Rothbaum BO. Behavioural Psychotherapy for Post-traumatic Stress Disorder. International Review of Psychiatry. 1989 Jan;1(3):219–26. [CrossRef]
  56. Rosenheck R. Stress Response Syndromes, 2nd Edition—by Mardi Jon Horowitz, M.D.; Aronson, New York, 1986, 358 pages, Psychiatric Services. 1986 Oct;37(10):1058-a-1059.
  57. Fisher S. Coping with Trauma. By Rolf Kleber and Danny Brom in collaboration with Peter B. Defares Amsterdam/Lisse: Swets & Zeitlinger. 1992. 312 pp. Gld 74.50. British Journal of Psychiatry. 1993 Feb;162(2):289–289. [CrossRef]
  58. Kabat Zinn J. Full catastrophe living: Using the wisdom of your body and mind to face stress, pain, and illness. Delacorte Press; 1990.
  59. McFarlane AC, Van Hooff M. Impact of childhood exposure to a natural disaster on adult mental health: 20year longitudinal followup study. Br J Psychiatry. 2009;195(2):142148.
  60. Moore L, Bérubé M, Belcaid A, Turgeon AF, Taljaard M, Fowler R, et al. Evaluating the effectiveness of a multifaceted intervention to reduce low-value care in adults hospitalized following trauma: a protocol for a pragmatic cluster randomized controlled trial. Implementation Science. 2023 Jul 7;18(1). [CrossRef]
  61. Stahl SM. Stahl’s essential psychopharmacology: Neuroscientific basis and practical applications. 4th ed. Cambridge University Press; 2013.
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.
Copyright: This open access article is published under a Creative Commons CC BY 4.0 license, which permit the free download, distribution, and reuse, provided that the author and preprint are cited in any reuse.
Prerpints.org logo

Preprints.org is a free preprint server supported by MDPI in Basel, Switzerland.

facebook logotwitter logolinkedin logo
bsky
MDPI Initiatives
Important Links
Subscribe

Disclaimer

Terms of Use

Privacy Policy

Privacy Settings

© 2026 MDPI (Basel, Switzerland) unless otherwise stated