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Overview and New Insights into the Metabolic Syndrome: Risk Factors and Emerging Variables in the Development of Type 2 Diabetes and Cerebrocardiovascular Disease
Hayden, M.R. Overview and New Insights into the Metabolic Syndrome: Risk Factors and Emerging Variables in the Development of Type 2 Diabetes and Cerebrocardiovascular Disease. Medicina2023, 59, 561.
Hayden, M.R. Overview and New Insights into the Metabolic Syndrome: Risk Factors and Emerging Variables in the Development of Type 2 Diabetes and Cerebrocardiovascular Disease. Medicina 2023, 59, 561.
Hayden, M.R. Overview and New Insights into the Metabolic Syndrome: Risk Factors and Emerging Variables in the Development of Type 2 Diabetes and Cerebrocardiovascular Disease. Medicina2023, 59, 561.
Hayden, M.R. Overview and New Insights into the Metabolic Syndrome: Risk Factors and Emerging Variables in the Development of Type 2 Diabetes and Cerebrocardiovascular Disease. Medicina 2023, 59, 561.
Abstract
Abstract Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is considered a metabolic disorder that has been steadily increasing globally and seems to parallel the increasing prevalence of obesity. It consists of a cluster of risk factors, which traditionally includes obesity and hyperlipidemia, hyperinsulinemia, hypertension, and hyperglycemia. These four core risk factors are associated with insulin resistance (IR) and importantly, the MetS is known to increase the risk for developing cerebrocardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes mellitus. The MetS had its early origins in IR and syndrome X. It has undergone numerous name changes with additional risk factors and variables being added over the years; however, it still remains the MetS worldwide for the past three decades. This overview continues to add novel insights to the MetS and suggests that leptin resistance with hyperleptinemia, aberrant mitochondrial stress and reactive oxygen species (ROS), impaired folate-mediated one-carbon metabolism with hyperhomocysteinemia, vascular stiffening, microalbuminuria, and visceral adipose tissues extracellular vesicle exosomes be added to the list of associated variables. Notably, the role of a dysfunctional and activated endothelium and deficient nitric oxide bioavailability along with a dysfunctional and attenuated endothelial glycocalyx, vascular inflammation, systemic metainflammation, and the important role ROS and reactive species interactome are discussed. With new insights and knowledge regarding the MetS, comes the possibility of new findings through further research.
Medicine and Pharmacology, Pathology and Pathobiology
Copyright:
This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
