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Urban Green Spaces and Psychosocial Well-Being: Findings from Structural Equation Modeling in Baku

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20 September 2026

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21 September 2026

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Abstract
Urban green spaces (UGS) are increasingly recognized as important environmental resources that contribute to public health and psychological well-being in rapidly urbanizing cities. This study examines the relationship between urban green space usage and mental health outcomes, specifically psychological well-being (WHO-5) and anxiety (GAD-7), among residents of Baku, Azerbaijan. The study also aims to identify key patterns of green space use and evaluate their potential effects using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). A cross-sectional design was employed, and data were collected using validated instruments, including the WHO-5 Well-Being Index and the GAD-7 Anxiety Scale, alongside a structured questionnaire assessing green space usage behaviors. The sample primarily consisted of students and young adults. Descriptive analyses were used to examine demographic characteristics and usage patterns, while SEM was applied to test the relationships between variables. The findings revealed that frequency of park visits, proximity to green spaces, and duration of park use did not have statistically significant direct effects on either psychological well-being or anxiety. However, a significant negative relationship was observed between well-being and anxiety, indicating that higher levels of well-being are associated with lower anxiety symptoms. The results suggest that green space usage alone may not directly predict mental health outcomes in the context of Baku, where green space availability and usage patterns are relatively limited and primarily short-term. Overall, the study highlights the importance of considering qualitative and contextual factors in understanding the mental health benefits of urban green spaces. The findings provide valuable implications for urban planning and public health policies aimed at improving the design, accessibility, and functionality of green spaces to better support psychological well-being in urban populations.
Keywords: 
urban green spaces (UGS)
;  
psychological well-being
;  
mental health
;  
urban planning
;  
Baku
;  
Azerbaijan
Subject: 
Public Health and Healthcare  -   Public, Environmental and Occupational Health

Introduction

In recent years, the rapid growth of cities and the process of urbanization have led to an increased demand for urban green spaces. These areas have significant potential for public health and well-being. Against the backdrop of rapid urbanization and rising levels of psycho-emotional stress in modern society, the importance of urban green spaces (UGS) has become even more pronounced.
Urban green spaces refer to areas within cities that are either planned by humans or naturally formed and are covered with vegetation (Taylor & Hochuli, 2017). As early as the 19th century, urbanists created large landscape parks within cities, referring to them as the “lungs” of the urban environment (Spirn, p. 60). Urban green spaces are considered an essential component of urban infrastructure (WHO, 2017). They aim to mitigate the negative effects of urbanization, regulate microclimatic conditions (Erlwein, Zölch & Pauleit, 2021), and create an environment that supports both physical and psychological health (WHO, 2017).
Urban green areas do not only provide opportunities for recreation and leisure; they also play an important role in promoting physical activity, reducing psychological stress, and strengthening social cohesion. Numerous studies indicate that accessibility to natural areas in urban environments contributes to reduced stress levels, increased physical activity (García de Jalón et al., 2021), and improved overall life satisfaction (Chen et al., 2021). In the context of increasing urbanization and population growth, these processes have a significant impact on ecological sustainability (Haq, 2011), biodiversity, human health, and the psychological well-being of urban residents.
Urban green spaces play a crucial role in sustainable urban development. Green space projects preserve and enhance the existing character of cities, improve environmental conditions, expand opportunities for outdoor recreation, and encourage active lifestyles. At the same time, these areas contribute to biodiversity conservation by providing habitats for wildlife.

Mental Well-Being

Mental well-being is a multidimensional concept encompassing the emotional, psychological, and social aspects of an individual’s life. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines mental health as a state of well-being in which an individual realizes their abilities, can cope with normal life stresses, works productively and fruitfully, and contributes to their community. Mental well-being is characterized by positive emotions, resilience, having a sense of purpose in life, and the ability to effectively manage daily challenges. In particular, the use of urban green spaces is associated with increased physical activity, improved cardiovascular health, reduced symptoms of anxiety and depression, and strengthened social ties and support systems within communities.
The use of green spaces is measured through indicators such as visitation frequency, accessibility, and duration of use, and these factors are positively associated with emotional well-being (Chen et al., 2021). Stress reduction and improved emotional well-being are among the most important outcomes of these effects. According to the Stress Reduction Theory (SRT), exposure to nature can reduce both psychological and physiological stress levels (Ulrich, 1983). Both the Attention Restoration Theory (ART) and Stress Reduction Theory (SRT) suggest that natural environments have a restorative effect on individuals. In other words, nature helps people restore their attention capacity and reduces mental fatigue. In the context of increasingly complex urban life and limited access to nature, urban green spaces partially fill this gap and may positively influence the social life and psychological behavior of individuals who use them (Sen & Guchhait, 2021).
When individuals observe their environment, they first respond emotionally. They then evaluate whether the environment is beneficial or harmful and subsequently form positive or negative feelings accordingly. This process can influence both behavior and physiological states, such as inducing a sense of relaxation.
The relevance of this study stems from the need for a more comprehensive and holistic investigation of the role of urban green spaces in shaping healthy urban environments. The aim of the study is to identify the main factors influencing the use of urban green spaces and to evaluate their effects on physical and mental health using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). It should be noted that following the adoption of the Kyoto Protocol in 1997, the study of urban green spaces began to develop as a distinct research field (Taylor & Hochuli, 2017). In particular, the limited number of studies on urban green spaces in developing countries highlights the need for deeper investigation into the effects of open urban spaces on psychological well-being. The findings of this research may have practical implications for municipal authorities, public health professionals, and urban planners in creating healthier and more livable urban environments.
At the same time, this study also contributes to the development of a multidisciplinary approach to understanding urban environments.

Study Area: Baku, Azerbaijan

This study was conducted in the city of Baku, the capital of Azerbaijan. Baku is the largest city in the country, covering an administrative area of approximately 2,130 km² and serving as the main political, economic, and cultural center of Azerbaijan (State Statistical Committee of the Republic of Azerbaijan, 2024). The city’s population is estimated at approximately 2.2–2.3 million inhabitants, based on official statistical records and urban demographic assessments (State Statistical Committee of the Republic of Azerbaijan, 2024). Geographically, Baku is located on the southern shore of the Absheron Peninsula, along the western coast of the Caspian Sea. It is one of the few capital cities in the world situated below sea level, with an average elevation of approximately –28 meters (World Bank, 2023). Baku has a semi-arid subtropical climate, characterized by relatively hot summers and mild winters. The average temperature ranges from approximately 2–4°C in January to 25–26°C in July, while annual precipitation remains low, reflecting the region’s dry climatic conditions (World Meteorological Organization, 2023).

Urban Green Spaces in Baku

In recent years, urban green infrastructure in Baku has undergone gradual development; however, the current level of green space provision remains limited compared to international standards. According to official estimates, the amount of green space per capita in Baku is approximately 5 m², which is below the recommended thresholds for healthy urban environments (State Statistical Committee of the Republic of Azerbaijan, 2024; WHO Regional Office for Europe, 2017). The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends a minimum of 9 m² of urban green space per capita, with higher levels considered more beneficial for physical and mental health outcomes (WHO Regional Office for Europe, 2017). This indicates that Baku still faces challenges in achieving adequate green space distribution across its urban environment. Despite these limitations, the city contains a diverse system of more than 200 parks, gardens, and recreational areas, including large-scale public green spaces such as the Seaside National Park (Baku Boulevard), which plays a significant role in improving environmental quality and providing recreational opportunities for residents (Baku City Executive Power, 2021).

Urban Development and Planning Framework

According to the Baku City Master Plan 2040, the expansion of green infrastructure is identified as a strategic priority for sustainable urban development. One of the key targets of the plan is to gradually increase the per capita green space to approximately 8 m² through the creation of new parks, rehabilitation of existing green areas, and development of ecological corridors (Baku City Executive Power, 2021). These initiatives aim to enhance environmental sustainability, mitigate urban heat effects, and improve the overall quality of life for urban residents. In summary, while Baku currently demonstrates relatively low levels of green space per capita compared to international recommendations, ongoing urban development strategies emphasize the expansion and improvement of green infrastructure. These efforts are expected to contribute significantly to environmental sustainability as well as the physical and psychological well-being of the urban population (WHO, 2017).

Instruments

Data were collected using a combination of validated scales and a purpose-designed questionnaire developed for this study. These instruments were used to assess participants’ sociodemographic characteristics, patterns of urban green space use, as well as their levels of physical, psychological, and social well-being.
The WHO-5 Well-Being Index, developed by the World Health Organization, is a self-report scale used to assess subjective well-being. This instrument is non-symptom-based and constructed using positively worded items, consisting of five statements (e.g., “I have felt cheerful and in good spirits,” “My daily life has been filled with things that interest me”). Respondents rate how often they have experienced these feelings over the past 14 days on a 6-point Likert scale ranging from 0 to 5 (0 = “at no time,” 5 = “all of the time”). The total score ranges from 0 to 25, with lower scores indicating lower levels of well-being. In line with standard practice in health-related quality of life measurement, the total score is transformed into a percentage scale by multiplying it by 4, resulting in a range from 0 to 100 (World Health Organization, 1998). The Azerbaijani adaptation of the WHO-5 Well-Being Index was conducted by Aliyev B. and colleagues (2024).
The Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7) Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7) was developed by Spitzer R. L. and colleagues to identify probable cases of generalized anxiety disorder and to assess the severity of anxiety symptoms (Spitzer et al., 2006). The GAD-7 scale consists of seven items measuring core anxiety symptoms (e.g., “Feeling afraid as if something awful might happen”). Responses are rated on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 0 to 3 (0 = “not at all,” 3 = “nearly every day”). The scale demonstrates high internal consistency, with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.895, which exceeds the recommended threshold of 0.80, indicating strong reliability. The Azerbaijani adaptation of the GAD-7 was conducted by Aliyev B. et al. (2026).

Methods and Participants

The results presented in the table reflect the demographic characteristics of the participants and their patterns of green space use. The majority of the sample consisted of females (n = 89, 87.3%), while males were less represented (n = 13, 12.7%). Regarding employment status, most participants were students (n = 60, 58.8%). Employed participants accounted for 31.4% (n = 32), whereas unemployed individuals represented 9.8% (n = 10). This distribution indicates that the sample primarily consisted of students. In terms of proximity to green spaces, a substantial proportion of participants reported living within a 5-minute distance to the nearest green area (Category 1: 42.2%, n = 43). Those living within 10–15 minutes accounted for 28.4% (n = 29), while 11.8% (n = 12) reported living more than 20 minutes away. Additionally, 17.6% (n = 18) stated that there was no park in their immediate vicinity. These findings suggest that most respondents reside in relatively accessible environments in terms of green space availability. Regarding frequency of park visits, the largest proportion of participants reported visiting parks a few times per month (Category 4: n = 43, 42.2%). A smaller percentage reported daily use of parks (Category 1: 6.9%), while other categories (several times per week, once per week, and never) were represented at lower levels. Overall, these results indicate a moderate level of park usage among participants. In relation to time spent in parks, most participants preferred spending between 15–30 minutes (Category 1: 41.2%) and 30–60 minutes (Category 2: 36.3%). A smaller proportion reported staying for 1–2 hours, while only a very small percentage spent more than 2 hours in green spaces (3.9%). These findings suggest that green space use is generally characterized by short- to medium-duration recreational activities. Regarding companionship during park visits, the highest proportion of participants reported visiting parks with friends (Category 2: 38.2%, n = 39). Additionally, visiting alone, with family, or with children also accounted for notable proportions of responses. These results indicate that green spaces serve as important settings for social interaction and shared activities. Finally, in terms of primary activities in parks, the vast majority of participants reported walking as their main activity (Category 1: 62.7%). Other activities such as running, cycling, socializing with friends, and family recreation were reported at comparatively lower rates. This suggests that green space use is predominantly centered around walking as the main form of activity.
Table 1. Demographic and Urban Green Space Characteristics of Participants.
Table 1. Demographic and Urban Green Space Characteristics of Participants.
Variable Category n %
Gender 1 89 87.3
2 13 12.7
Employment status 1 60 58.8
2 32 31.4
3 10 9.8
Distance to nearest green space 1 43 42.2
2 29 28.4
3 12 11.8
4 18 17.6
Frequency of park visits 1 7 6.9
2 25 24.5
3 14 13.7
4 43 42.2
5 13 12.7
Time spent in park 1 42 41.2
2 37 36.3
3 19 18.6
4 4 3.9
Who participants go with 1 26 25.5
2 39 38.2
3 32 31.4
4 5 4.9
Main activities in park 1 64 62.7
2 2 2.0
3 2 2.0
4 21 20.6
5 13 12.7
Table 2 presents the reliability analysis of the WHO-5 Well-being Index and the GAD-7 Anxiety Scale used in the present study. The results indicate that both instruments demonstrate acceptable internal consistency within the current sample. Specifically, the WHO-5 Well-being scale, consisting of 5 items, showed good reliability with a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.85, indicating a high level of internal consistency. The mean score for well-being was 2.80 (SD = 1.20), suggesting a moderate level of perceived psychological well-being among participants. Similarly, the GAD-7 Anxiety scale, composed of 7 items, demonstrated acceptable internal consistency with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.76. This value indicates that the scale reliably measures anxiety symptoms in the present sample. The mean score for anxiety was 1.20 (SD = 0.51), reflecting relatively low levels of reported anxiety symptoms among participants. Overall, the reliability coefficients obtained for both scales confirm that the measurement instruments used in this study are psychometrically sound and suitable for further statistical analyses.
The structural model findings showed that park-related variables, including frequency of park visits, distance to parks, and time spent in parks, were not significantly associated with either psychological well-being or anxiety levels among participants. In other words, individuals’ patterns of park use did not appear to directly influence their WHO-5 well-being or GAD-7 anxiety scores in the present sample. However, a significant inverse relationship was identified between psychological well-being and anxiety. Higher levels of well-being were associated with lower levels of anxiety, indicating that individuals with better subjective well-being tended to report fewer anxiety symptoms. This relationship was moderate in strength and statistically significant, highlighting the close connection between positive psychological functioning and reduced anxiety. Overall, the findings suggest that although park usage behaviors were not direct predictors of well-being or anxiety, psychological well-being itself played an important role in relation to anxiety symptoms.

Discussion

The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between urban green space usage behaviors and psychological well-being (WHO-5) and anxiety (GAD-7) among residents of Baku, using structural equation modeling (SEM). The overall findings indicate that green space use variables (park frequency, accessibility, and duration of stay in parks) do not have a statistically significant direct effect on either psychological well-being or anxiety. However, a strong and negative association was observed between psychological well-being and anxiety. The results suggest that park usage indicators do not significantly predict WHO-5 or GAD-7 scores. This finding is partially inconsistent with previous literature, which has reported that access to green spaces is associated with reduced stress and improved well-being (Ulrich, 1983; García de Jalón et al., 2021). However, this result may indicate that the psychological benefits of green spaces are not direct, but rather operate through indirect mechanisms such as social interaction, physical activity, or broader lifestyle factors.
In addition, considering the urban structure of Baku, green spaces are relatively limited and unevenly distributed. The fact that per capita green space remains below international recommendations (approximately 5–8 m²) may weaken their potential psychological effects. Furthermore, green space use in the sample appears to be mainly characterized by short-duration and walking-oriented activities, which may limit the full restorative potential of these environments.
The findings also demonstrate a strong negative relationship between psychological well-being (WHO-5) and anxiety (GAD-7) (β = -0.421, p < .001). This result is consistent with previous research and indicates that higher levels of well-being are closely associated with lower levels of anxiety symptoms. This relationship highlights the importance of viewing mental health as an integrated and interrelated system.
From the perspective of Stress Reduction Theory (SRT) and Attention Restoration Theory (ART), the results provide partial support for the theoretical assumptions that natural environments contribute to emotional and cognitive restoration (Ulrich, 1983; Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989). However, the weak direct associations observed in this study suggest that such effects may depend not only on the frequency or duration of green space use, but also on factors such as quality of use, emotional attachment, and social context (Sen & Guchhait, 2021).
Moreover, in rapidly urbanizing cities such as Baku, green space use tends to be predominantly functional (e.g., walking and short-term recreation), which may limit its psychological restorative impact. This finding suggests that not only the availability of green spaces, but also their quality, accessibility, and patterns of social use are important determinants of mental health outcomes. The findings also have important implications for urban planning and public health policy. Planned urban greening initiatives in Baku, as well as the upcoming UN World Urban Forum (WUF13) in 2026, represent strategically important opportunities in this regard. Improving not only the quantity but also the functional design of green spaces may be crucial for enhancing psychological well-being.
In conclusion, this study suggests that while urban green space usage is not a strong direct predictor of psychological well-being, it may play an indirect and contextual role within the broader mental health system. Future research should incorporate variables such as green space quality, social interaction, and emotional attachment to provide a more comprehensive understanding of these relationships.

Conclusion

This study investigated the relationship between urban green space usage and psychological well-being (WHO-5) and anxiety (GAD-7) among residents of Baku using structural equation modeling (SEM). The findings indicate that frequency of park visits, proximity to green spaces, and duration of park use do not have statistically significant direct effects on either well-being or anxiety. However, a strong and significant negative relationship was observed between psychological well-being and anxiety, confirming that higher well-being is closely associated with lower anxiety levels. Overall, the results suggest that in the context of Baku, the psychological benefits of urban green spaces may not operate through direct usage patterns alone. Instead, these effects are likely to be mediated by other contextual factors such as quality of green spaces, social interaction opportunities, and individual lifestyle behaviors. These findings highlight the importance of not only increasing the quantity of urban green spaces but also improving their accessibility, quality, and functional design. Such improvements may contribute more effectively to enhancing mental health outcomes in urban populations.

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Table 2. Reliability Analysis of WHO-5 and GAD-7 Scales.
Table 2. Reliability Analysis of WHO-5 and GAD-7 Scales.
Scale Items Cronbach’s α Mean SD
WHO-5 Well-being 5 0.85 2.80 1.20
GAD-7 Anxiety 7 0.76 1.20 0.51
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