Determinants of Entrepreneurial Spirit Among University Students in Luanda, Angola: The Role of Social Influence and Self-Efficacy

1. Introduction

Entrepreneurship has emerged as a critical driver of economic development, innovation, and job creation, particularly in developing economies where traditional employment opportunities remain limited (Mshenga et al. 2020). Sub-Saharan Africa, including Angola, faces substantial youth unemployment challenges, with rates exceeding 30% in several countries, highlighting the urgent need to foster entrepreneurial capabilities among young populations (Asmare 2023). University students represent a strategic demographic group for entrepreneurship development, as they possess educational capital and are at a formative stage where entrepreneurial intentions and capabilities can be effectively cultivated (Muhammad et al. 2015; Newman et al. 2019).

The determinants of entrepreneurial spirit among university students have been extensively studied in developed economies, revealing complex interactions between individual characteristics, educational environments, and sociocultural contexts (MSOSA and RADEBE 2022; Sukti Dasgupta et al. 2022). However, the African context presents unique challenges and opportunities that may fundamentally alter these relationships. Angola, having transitioned from decades of civil conflict to relative stability and efforts at economic diversification, represents a particularly compelling case for understanding entrepreneurial development in post-conflict and resource-dependent economies (Mwiya et al. 2017).

The Theory of Planned Behavior (Ndofirepi et al. 2018) and Social Cognitive Theory (Fatoki 2019) provide fundamental insights into entrepreneurial intentions and behaviour. These frameworks emphasize the role of subjective norms, such as perceived social pressure to engage in or not engage in entrepreneurial behaviour, and self-efficacy, such as the belief in one’s own ability to perform entrepreneurial tasks, as critical psychological determinants. Recent studies confirm that entrepreneurial self-efficacy consistently predicts entrepreneurial intentions and behaviour across diverse cultural contexts (Nosheena et al. 2019; Puni et al. 2018).

Despite the growing interest in African entrepreneurship, empirical evidence from Portuguese-speaking Africa remains scarce, with most studies focusing on Anglophone or Francophone regions (Mwatsika 2016). The post-conflict trajectory in Angola, its oil-dependent economy, and ongoing efforts toward economic diversification create a distinct environment for entrepreneurial development (Bandura 1977). Furthermore, understanding which factors most strongly predict entrepreneurial spirit among Angolan university students can guide educational interventions and policy initiatives aimed at fostering sustainable entrepreneurial ecosystems (Pobbi and Antiaye 2020). In this study, we investigated the determinants of entrepreneurial spirit, as well as the role of social influence and self-efficacy among young university students in Luanda, the capital of Angola, in order to contribute both to theoretical understanding and to the development of practical policies for entrepreneurial education in developing economies.

2. Methods

2.1. Study Design and Setting

This was a cross-sectional study conducted with 168 students enrolled in various undergraduate programs and academic years at the Technical University of Angola (UTANGA), located in Luanda, the capital city of Angola, from November to December 2025. UTANGA is one of the largest higher education institutions in the country, offering diverse academic programs and serving as a reference centre for research, training, and community engagement in entrepreneurship and management. Students of all ages and academic levels were eligible for inclusion. All research was performed in accordance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the general management of UTANGA (Number 001/26/CCP/FGCE). Informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to data collection.

2.2. Data Collection Instrument

Data were collected using a questionnaire administered online via Google Forms. The questionnaire included items measured on a five-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree; 5 = strongly agree) and assessed three domains, such (i) subjective norms, including family support, peer influence, teacher encouragement, and social recognition of entrepreneurship), (ii) entrepreneurial self-efficacy including perceived ability to identify opportunities, manage a business, mobilize people, and make decisions under risk, and (iii) entrepreneurial intention including intention to create a business, future planning, active preparation, and self-image as an entrepreneur. For the purposes of this study, responses from strongly disagree to neither agree nor disagree were grouped as No, while responses from agree to strongly agree were grouped as Yes, allowing the dichotomisation of all variables for statistical analysis.

2.3. Statistical Analysis

All data were analysed using SPSS v.31 (IBM SPSS Statistics, USA). Continuous variables are presented as means with standard deviation (SD), and categorical variables as frequencies and percentages. Group comparisons were performed using the independent samples t-test for continuous variables and the Chi-square or Fisher’s exact test for categorical variables, depending on the expected cell counts. The strength of associations between categorical variables was quantified using Cramer’s V, interpreted as weak, moderate, or strong magnitude. All statistical tests were two-tailed, and a p<0.05 was deemed statistically significant.

3. Results

Determinants of entrepreneurial spirit among university students. Table 1 summarises the determinants of entrepreneurial spirit among university students in Angola. A total of 168 students participated in the study, aged between 18 and 51 years, with a mean age of 27.4 ± 6.43 years. Overall, the prevalence of entrepreneurial spirit was high, observed in 96.4% (162/168) of the participants. The mean age did not differ significantly between students with and without entrepreneurial spirit (27.3 ± 6.32 vs. 31.7 ± 8.52 years, p=0.099). When stratified by age, a statistically significant association was observed between age group and entrepreneurial spirit, with a reduction in the prevalence of entrepreneurial spirit as age increased (72.2% among students under 30 years old, compared to 3.7% among students aged 40 or older), with students under 30 years old being the majority of those with an entrepreneurial spirit (Fisher’s Exact test, p=0.033), with a strong magnitude (Cramer’s V=0.3). Gender and occupation did not show a significant association with entrepreneurial spirit (p=0.405 and p=0.665, respectively), although female students represented 57.4% and employed students 66% of those who demonstrated entrepreneurial spirit. Most students were enrolled in the Management course (84.5%), while 15.5% were studying Accounting Sciences. Regarding the academic year, 76.2% of students were in their first year and 16.7% in their fourth year. Statistical analysis indicated that neither the university course (p = 0.592) nor the academic year (p = 0.212) showed a significant association with entrepreneurial spirit. Among students with an entrepreneurial spirit, the majority were enrolled in Management (84.0%) and in their first year (77.2%). Regarding social and environmental factors, subjective norms and family support did not reach statistical significance (p=0.051 and p=0.178, respectively). Similarly, peer influence, teacher encouragement, and perceived social value did not show a significant association with entrepreneurial spirit (p>0.05). On the other hand, students who reported entrepreneurial self-sufficiency were significantly more likely to demonstrate entrepreneurial spirit (82.1% vs. 17.9%, Fisher’s Exact test, p=0.001), with a strong magnitude (Cramer’s V=0.3). The ability to mobilise people also showed a significant association (72.8% vs. 27.2%, Fisher’s Exact test, p<0.001), with a strong magnitude (Cramer’s V=0.3). Other skills, such as identifying opportunities, managing a business, or making decisions in risky situations, did not show a significant association with entrepreneurial spirit (p>0.05).

Entrepreneurial characteristics associated with subjective norms and self-efficacy.Table 2 presents the entrepreneurial characteristics associated with subjective norms and entrepreneurial self-sufficiency among students with entrepreneurial spirit. Among the 162 students with entrepreneurial spirit analyzed, 94.4% reported the presence of positive subjective norms, while 82.1% reported entrepreneurial self-sufficiency. The average age did not show a significant difference in relation to subjective norms or entrepreneurial self-sufficiency (p=0.076 and p=0.448, respectively). The predominant age group, under 30 years, showed a significant association with subjective norms (73.9%, Fisher’s Exact test, p=0.027), with a strong magnitude (Cramer’s V=0.3), but not with entrepreneurial self-sufficiency (74.4%, p=0.278). Female students were significantly more likely to report entrepreneurial self-sufficiency than male students (52.6% vs. 47.4%, respectively, X2=6.93, df=1, p<0.012), with a moderate magnitude (Cramer’s V=0.2), while gender did not show an association with subjective norms, although there was a predominance of females among the participants (58.2%, p=0.498). Also, employment status did not show a significant relationship with either subjective norms or entrepreneurial self-sufficiency (p>0.05). Statistical analysis indicated that neither the university course nor the academic year showed a significant association with subjective norms or entrepreneurial self-efficacy (p>0.05). Among students with positive subjective norms and high entrepreneurial self-efficacy, the majority were enrolled in management (85% and 82%, respectively) and in their first year (76.5% and 75.9%, respectively). Students involved in business creation were significantly more likely to report entrepreneurial self-sufficiency (92.5% vs. 7.5%, Fisher’s Exact test, p=0.042), with a moderate magnitude (Cramer’s V=0.2). Future planning was also significantly associated with self-sufficiency (χ²=7.81, df=1, p<0.005), with a moderate magnitude (Cramer’s V=0.2), and 41.4% of students who engaged in future planning reported self-sufficiency. Furthermore, self-image as an entrepreneur showed a strong and statistically significant association with entrepreneurial self-sufficiency (56.4% vs. 43.6%, χ²=20.2, df=1, p<0.001; Cramer’s V=0.4), but was not associated with subjective norms (p=1.000). Active preparation for entrepreneurship did not show a statistically significant relationship with subjective norms or entrepreneurial self-sufficiency (p>0.05).

4. Discussion

The present study reveals a high prevalence of entrepreneurial spirit (96.4%) among young Angolan university students, exceeding the rates reported in studies from other African contexts, where prevalence typically ranges from 60% to 80% (Ketemaw 2020; Usman et al. 2025). Our findings might suggest a strong entrepreneurial orientation among Angolan students, which reflects the challenging formal employment landscape in Angola, where entrepreneurship represents not only an opportunity but often a necessity for survival and economic advancement (Asmare 2023; Mwiya et al. 2017).

Our finding that entrepreneurial self-efficacy is an important determinant of entrepreneurial spirit aligns with broad international evidence (Nosheena et al. 2019; Puni et al. 2018). Students who reported entrepreneurial self-sufficiency were significantly more likely to demonstrate entrepreneurial spirit (p=0.001, Cramer’s V=0.3), confirming the central role of self-efficacy in entrepreneurial cognition, as documented in diverse contexts, from developed Western economies to emerging Asian markets (Issa and Tesfaye 2020). Thus, these findings suggest that interventions aimed at strengthening self-efficacy, such as mastery experiences, observational learning, or verbal persuasion, may constitute widely applicable strategies to promote entrepreneurship [10]. Similarly, the ability to mobilise people showed a strong association with entrepreneurial spirit (p<0.001, Cramer’s V=0.3), highlighting the fundamentally social nature of entrepreneurship, where success depends not only on individual capabilities but also on the ability to build teams, attract resources, and coordinate collective actions (Jean et al. 2014). These findings showed that entrepreneurial education should emphasise not only technical business skills but also leadership, communication, and teamwork.

The reduction in entrepreneurial intention with increasing age, as well as the association between younger age (under 30 years) and entrepreneurial spirit (p=0.033), is consistent with international evidence that presents mixed results. On the one hand, some studies report a decline in entrepreneurial intentions with advancing age, due to increased risk aversion and opportunity costs; on the other hand, these findings contrast with research indicating that entrepreneurial experience and networks accumulated over time can strengthen entrepreneurial capabilities (ALİN and DİL 2022). It is worth mentioning that the fact that only 3.7% of students over 40 years old demonstrate entrepreneurial intent suggests that the propensity to start commercial activities decreases significantly with age. From the perspective of economic development in Angola, this scenario may represent an untapped opportunity, since individuals in this age group generally have greater professional experience, more consolidated networks of contacts, and better market knowledge. The low entrepreneurial intent in this group may limit the potential for creating more structured and sustainable businesses, which could contribute to job creation, innovation, and diversification of the national economy. Therefore, it is important to promote specific policies and programs to encourage entrepreneurship among older adults, such as entrepreneurial training programs, business incubation aimed at experienced professionals, facilitating access to financing, and creating mentoring networks. Furthermore, universities and institutions supporting entrepreneurship can develop initiatives that integrate the professional experience of these students with business creation opportunities, leveraging their human and social capital to boost entrepreneurship and contribute to the country’s economic growth.

Contrary to expectations derived from the Theory of Planned Behaviour (Ndofirepi et al. 2018), subjective norms did not reach statistical significance as predictors of entrepreneurial spirit (p=0.051). This borderline association suggests that perceived social expectations may play some role, but less decisively than self-efficacy beliefs (p=0.001). However, among students who had already demonstrated entrepreneurial spirit, 94.4% reported positive subjective norms, and significant associations were observed between younger students with positive norms (p=0.027). This pattern suggests that subjective norms could act more as facilitating conditions or moderating factors, and not necessarily as the main determinants of entrepreneurial spirit. In African societies, where family and community approval carry considerable weight (Gird and Bagraim 2008), the role of subjective norms deserves further investigation in future studies, preferably with more refined measurement approaches.

The finding that gender is not related to entrepreneurial spirit (p=0.405), despite women representing 57.4% of those with an entrepreneurial orientation, challenges common assumptions about gender disparities in entrepreneurship. However, when examining entrepreneurial self-efficacy specifically among students with an entrepreneurial spirit, women were significantly more likely to report high self-efficacy (p=0.012). This pattern suggests that, although Angolan female students demonstrate entrepreneurial orientation at rates comparable to or higher than those of men, the underlying psychological mechanisms and their manifestations may differ according to gender. Previous studies have documented lower entrepreneurial self-efficacy among women (Ephrem et al. 2019), making the Angolan pattern particularly noteworthy and deserving of further investigation. This finding may reflect the specific sociocultural context of Angola, where women have historically played substantial economic roles, or the impact of recent entrepreneurial education and training programs, which have strengthened self-efficacy and entrepreneurial orientation among female university students, reducing traditionally observed gender differences.

The absence of significant associations between entrepreneurial spirit and factors such as family support (p=0.178), peer influence, teacher encouragement, and perceived social value suggests that entrepreneurial orientation among Angolan students may be driven more by internal psychological factors and personal capabilities than by external social influences. This pattern differs from findings in other contexts, where entrepreneurial family history and social support systems significantly predict entrepreneurial intentions (Gebresilase et al. 2025). The Angolan pattern may reflect the country’s particular historical trajectory, where decades of conflict and economic instability may have fostered a culture of individual resilience and self-sufficiency that diminishes the relative importance of traditional social support structures.

Among students with an entrepreneurial spirit, involvement in business creation (p=0.042), future planning (p<0.005), and entrepreneurial self-image (p<0.001) showed significant associations with entrepreneurial self-efficacy, with self-image demonstrating the strongest relationship (Cramer’s V=0.4). This pattern suggests a mutually reinforcing relationship between entrepreneurial identity, concrete planning and action, and confidence in entrepreneurial capabilities. These findings are aligned with the perspectives of identity theory on entrepreneurship, which emphasise that entrepreneurial identity serves as a powerful motivational force that shapes behaviour and persistence (Maheshwari et al. 2023). The strong association between entrepreneurial self-image and self-efficacy suggests that interventions that promote the formation of entrepreneurial identity may be particularly effective in building the psychological foundations for entrepreneurial action.

The study has some limitations. Firstly, the cross-sectional design prevents causal inferences. Secondly, the sample was predominantly composed of first-year students, which may not fully represent the university population. Finally, the concentration of participants in management courses limits generalisation to other areas. Despite these limitations, the study revealed that self-efficacy and mobilisation capacity are the main drivers of entrepreneurial spirit among Angolan university students, highlighting the strategic role of higher education in fostering entrepreneurship and innovation. Longitudinal studies that follow students from their academic training to their attempts at entrepreneurship could provide more definitive evidence on the factors that predict actual entrepreneurial behaviour in Angola.

Conclusion

Our results show that entrepreneurial spirit is highly prevalent among young Angolan university students, with self-efficacy, mobilisation capacity, and self-perception as entrepreneurs being the main determinants. These results highlight the strategic role of higher education in fostering entrepreneurial skills and promoting innovation. Strengthening these attributes through university curricula can contribute to the development of a more dynamic and entrepreneurial young population in Angola, supporting both economic growth and social progress. Further longitudinal studies that follow students from academic training to real-world entrepreneurial activity can help provide clearer information on the factors that drive entrepreneurial behaviour in young Angolans.