Social Media Addiction and Social Media Fatigue Increase Anxiety, Depression and Loneliness: A national Cross-Sectional Study in Greece

Introduction

Social media platforms have become deeply embedded in contemporary daily life, fundamentally reshaping the ways individuals communicate, access information, form social connections, and engage in public discourse. Platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, X, and YouTube are used by billions of people worldwide, making social media one of the most influential environments for interpersonal interaction, entertainment, and information exchange. The widespread adoption of these platforms has created unprecedented opportunities for connectivity, self-expression, knowledge dissemination, and social support across diverse populations and geographical contexts.

Despite these advantages, an expanding body of research has raised concerns regarding the potential adverse consequences of excessive or problematic social media use on psychological well-being. While social media can facilitate social connectedness and provide valuable informational and emotional resources, prolonged engagement and exposure to negative online experiences have been associated with a range of unfavorable mental health outcomes. Emerging evidence suggests that problematic patterns of social media use, including addictive behaviors, compulsive engagement, and social media fatigue, may contribute to increased levels of psychological distress, anxiety, depression, and loneliness. Furthermore, exposure to toxic online environments, cyberbullying, hate speech, misinformation, and emotionally provocative content may exacerbate these negative effects, particularly among vulnerable individuals (Ahmed et al., 2024; Conte et al., 2025; Galanis et al., 2025a; Jain et al., 2025; Lopes et al., 2022; McCashin & Murphy, 2023; Wu et al., 2024).

Among the various forms of problematic online behavior, social media addiction has emerged as a growing public health concern. Social media addiction is characterized by excessive preoccupation with social networking platforms, difficulties controlling use, and continued engagement despite negative consequences. Previous studies have demonstrated significant associations between problematic social media use and a range of mental health problems, including anxiety, depression, psychological distress, and reduced well-being. A recent systematic review and meta-analysis reported that social media addiction was positively associated with anxiety, depression, and loneliness, suggesting that individuals exhibiting addictive patterns of social media use may be particularly vulnerable to psychological difficulties (Jing et al., 2025; Shannon et al., 2022).

Another increasingly recognized phenomenon is social media fatigue, which refers to feelings of exhaustion, overwhelm, frustration, or disengagement resulting from prolonged exposure to social media content and interactions. The rapid flow of information, constant connectivity, social comparison, fear of missing out, and information overload may contribute to fatigue among social media users. Emerging evidence indicates that social media fatigue can negatively affect psychological well-being and may be associated with higher levels of anxiety and depression. Previous research has suggested that excessive engagement with social media, particularly when accompanied by compulsive use and information overload, may increase emotional exhaustion and subsequently contribute to poorer mental health outcomes (Dhir et al., 2018; Qin et al., 2024).

To date, empirical evidence concerning the impact of social media addiction and social media fatigue on mental health outcomes, particularly anxiety, depression, and loneliness, remains limited, especially within European populations. Furthermore, no large-scale study conducted in Greece has systematically investigated these associations in the general adult population. Although previous research in the Greek context has documented significant associations between problematic social media use and adverse mental health outcomes (Bilali et al., 2025; Galanis et al., 2025b, 2026; Katsiroumpa, Katsiroumpa, et al., 2026; Katsiroumpa, Katsiroumpa, Koukia, et al., 2025a; Katsiroumpa, Moisoglou, Gallos, et al., 2025; Katsiroumpa, Moisoglou, Mitropoulos, et al., 2025; Mangoulia et al., 2025), important gaps remain regarding the specific mechanisms through which different facets of problematic social media engagement, such as addiction and fatigue, influence psychological well-being. Given the widespread and increasing integration of social media into everyday life, there is a pressing need for further research examining these emerging social media-related phenomena in the general population. Such investigations are essential for advancing understanding of their potential mental health consequences and for informing the development of targeted public health interventions and prevention strategies.

Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the impact of social media addiction and social media fatigue on anxiety, depression and loneliness in general population. To the best of our knowledge this is the first study in Greece that examined these associations.

Methods

Study Design

A cross-sectional survey was undertaken in Greece using an online data collection approach. Data were gathered between February and June 2026 through a structured questionnaire designed and administered via Google Forms. The survey was distributed across widely used social media platforms, including Facebook, Instagram, and TikTok. The study population consisted of individuals with internet access who were active users of at least one social media platform. Participants were considered eligible if they: (a) were 18 years of age or older, (b) maintained at least one active account on Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, X, or YouTube, and (c) provided informed consent prior to participation. Recruitment was conducted using a non-probability convenience sampling method, resulting in a convenience sample of social media users. The study was conceptualized, conducted, and reported in accordance with the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) guidelines.(Von Elm et al., 2008)

To minimize the risk of selection bias, the participant information sheet described the study in broad terms as an investigation of social media use, without specifically referring to social media addiction or social media fatigue. This strategy was employed to promote participation among individuals irrespective of their previous awareness of, or experiences with, these phenomena. By avoiding explicit emphasis on these constructs, the study sought to reduce the likelihood of selectively attracting respondents with particular interests in, or direct experiences of, problematic social media use, exposure to hate speech, or engagement with rage-inducing content, thereby enhancing the representativeness of the study sample.

The required sample size was estimated using G*Power software (version 3.1.9.2). Based on a multivariable analytical model incorporating nine predictor variables, the minimum sample size was calculated using a conservative small effect size (f² = 0.01), a significance level of α = 0.05, and a statistical power of 95%. Under these assumptions, a minimum of 1302 participants was required to ensure adequate statistical power for the planned analyses.

Measurements

Sociodemographic Characteristics

Participants were requested to provide information on a range of sociodemographic characteristics, including sex (male or female), age (recorded as a continuous variable), educational attainment (measured in years of education and analyzed as a continuous variable), employment status (employed or unemployed), and average daily duration of social media use (continuous variable). Additionally, perceived economic status was assessed through a self-reported measure ranging from 0 (very poor) to 10 (excellent), with higher scores reflecting a more positive assessment of the participant’s personal financial circumstances. This subjective indicator was included to capture participants’ perceptions of their socioeconomic position beyond objective demographic measures.

Social Media Addiction

We employed the Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (BSMAS) to assess levels of social media addiction in our sample (Andreassen et al., 2016). The BSMAS is comprised of six items that reflect essential addiction componentts: salience, mood modification, tolerance, withdrawal symptoms, conflict, and relapse. The BSMAS measures behaviors related to social media addiction over a year, with each of the six items rated on a 5-point Likert scale from 1 (very rarely) to 5 (very often). The BSMAS is structured as a unifactorial model, allowing total scores to range from 6 to 30, where higher scores signify higher levels of social media addiction. We used the validated Greek version of the BSMAS (Katsiroumpa, Katsiroumpa, Koukia, et al., 2025b). Cronbach’s alpha for the BSMAS was 0.846 in this study.

Social Media Fatigue

We used the Social Media Fatigue Scale-3 items to measure levels of social media fatigue in our sample (Katsiroumpa, Konstantakopoulou, et al., 2026). The SMFS-3 is a one-factor three-item scale with responses on a 5-point Liker scale from 1 (very rarely) to 5 (very often). The SMFS-3 covers the three dimensions of social media fatigue; cognitive fatigue, behavioral fatigue and emotional fatigue. Total score on the SMFS-3 ranges from 3 to 15, and higher scores indicate greater social media fatigue. Cronbach alpha was 0.746 in this study.

Anxiety and Depression

Anxiety and depression were measured using the Patient Health Questionnaire-4 (PHQ-4), which includes four items, two for anxiety and two for depression, answered on a four-point Likert scale (0 = not at all to 3 = nearly every day) (Kroenke et al., 2009). Higher scores reflect greater symptom severity. The Greek version was used (Karekla et al., 2012), with Cronbach’s alpha values of 0.778 (anxiety) and 0.726 (depression).

Loneliness

We measured loneliness with the UCLA 3-Item Loneliness Scale (UCLA-LS-3) (Hughes et al., 2004). Answers are on a three-point Likert scale from 1 (hardly ever) to 3 (often). Total score on the UCLA-LS-3 ranges from 3 to 9, with higher scores indicating higher levels of loneliness. We used the valid Greek version of the UCLA-LS-3 (Katsiroumpa, Katsiroumpa, Koukia, et al., 2025c). In our study, the UCLA-LS-3 had a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.831.

Ethical Issues

Ethical approval for the study protocol was granted by the Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Nursing at the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens (Approval No. 35; 28.12.2025). The study was carried out in accordance with the principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki (World Medical Association, 2013) Prior to participation, individuals were provided with comprehensive information about the study’s aims and procedures, and informed consent was obtained from all participants. Data collection was conducted anonymously, and participation was entirely voluntary.

Statistical Analysis

Categorical variables are presented as absolute (n) and relative (%) frequencies, whereas continuous variables are summarized using means, standard deviations (SDs), medians, and interquartile ranges (IQRs). The distribution of continuous variables was assessed using the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test and visual inspection of quantile-quantile (Q-Q) plots, which indicated that the variables were normally distributed. The dependent variables were anxiety, depression, and loneliness. Two variables were examined as the independent predictors; social media addiction, and social media fatigue. Moreover, we eliminated the confounding effect of sociodemographic characteristics that we mentioned above. We performed multivariable linear regression analysis to examine the associations between each independent variable and the study outcome after adjusting for confounding. Results are presented as adjusted beta coefficients (b), together with their corresponding 95% confidence intervals (CIs) and p-values. Statistical significance was defined as a two-tailed p-value < 0.05. All statistical analyses were performed using IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, version 28.0 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA).

Results

Sociodemographic Characteristics

A total of 1331 individuals participated in the study. The majority of respondents were female (78.0%), while 66.4% reported being employed at the time of data collection. The mean age of the participants was 33.14 years (SD = 14.72), with a median age of 25 years (IQR = 26), and ages ranging from 18 to 66 years. On average, participants reported spending 3.77 hours per day on social media platforms (SD = 2.38). The median daily duration of social media use was 3 hours (IQR = 3), with reported usage varying between 1 and 14 hours per day. Regarding subjective economic status, the mean self-assessed score was 6.07 (SD = 1.45), whereas the median score was 6 (IQR = 2), with values ranging from 0 to 10. Detailed information on the sociodemographic profile of the study sample is provided in Table 1.

Study Scales

Descriptive statistics for the study scales are shown in Table 2. Mean anxiety score was 2.51, while mean depression score was 1.99. Mean loneliness score was 4.96. Mean social media fatigue score was 9.98, and mean social media addiction score was 13.59.

Dependent Variable: Anxiety

Table 3 reports the results of the multivariable linear regression model with anxiety as the dependent variable. Multivariable model identified a positive association between social media fatigue and anxiety (adjusted beta = 0.081; 95% CI: 0.046 to 0.117; p < 0.001). Additionally, social media addiction was positively associated with increased levels of anxiety (adjusted beta = 0.066; 95% CI: 0.044 to 0.087; p < 0.001).

Dependent Variable: Depression

Table 4 reports the results of the multivariable linear regression model with depression as the dependent variable. Multivariable model identified a positive association between social media fatigue and depression (adjusted beta = 0.092; 95% CI: 0.057 to 0.127; p < 0.001). Additionally, social media addiction was positively associated with increased levels of depression (adjusted beta = 0.085; 95% CI: 0.064 to 0.106; p < 0.001).

Dependent Variable: Loneliness

Table 5 reports the results of the multivariable linear regression model with loneliness as the dependent variable. Multivariable model identified a positive association between social media fatigue and loneliness (adjusted beta = 0.063; 95% CI: 0.025 to 0.102; p < 0.001). Additionally, social media addiction was positively associated with increased levels of loneliness (adjusted beta = 0.105; 95% CI: 0.082 to 0.128; p < 0.001).

Discussion

The present study examined for first time in Greece the associations of social media addiction and social media fatigue with anxiety, depression, and loneliness in a large sample of adults from the general population in Greece. Our findings demonstrated that both social media addiction and social media fatigue were independently and positively associated with all three mental health outcomes. Specifically, higher levels of addiction and fatigue were associated with increased anxiety, depression, and loneliness, even after adjustment for potential confounding variables. These findings contribute to the growing body of evidence suggesting that problematic patterns of social media engagement may represent important risk factors for psychological distress (Jing et al., 2025; Peng & Liao, 2023).

The observed association between social media addiction and anxiety is consistent with previous research indicating that individuals exhibiting addictive patterns of social media use are more likely to experience heightened levels of anxiety and psychological distress. Several mechanisms may explain this association. Excessive engagement with social media may increase exposure to social comparison, fear of missing out (FoMO), cyberbullying, and emotionally charged content, all of which have been linked to anxiety symptoms. Furthermore, compulsive checking behaviors and dependency on online feedback may contribute to persistent psychological arousal and reduced emotional regulation. Our findings align with recent systematic reviews and meta-analyses demonstrating significant positive associations between social media addiction and anxiety across diverse populations (Jing et al., 2025; Peng & Liao, 2023; Shannon et al., 2022).

Similarly, we found that social media addiction was positively associated with depression. This finding is in agreement with previous evidence showing that problematic social media use is associated with depressive symptomatology. Excessive social media engagement may displace meaningful offline interactions, disrupt sleep patterns, and foster negative self-evaluations through repeated upward social comparisons. Moreover, individuals experiencing depressive symptoms may rely on social media as a coping strategy, potentially creating a reinforcing cycle in which psychological distress promotes problematic use, which in turn exacerbates mental health problems. Previous studies have consistently reported positive associations between problematic social media use and depression, emphasizing the need to consider addictive social media behaviors as a potential contributor to poor psychological well-being (Jing et al., 2025; Peng & Liao, 2023; Shannon et al., 2022).

Our findings also revealed a significant association between social media addiction and loneliness. Although social media platforms are often promoted as tools that facilitate social connection, excessive or maladaptive use may paradoxically increase feelings of social isolation. Individuals who rely heavily on online interactions may experience reduced face-to-face communication, weaker social bonds, and lower satisfaction with interpersonal relationships. Furthermore, observing idealized representations of others’ lives may reinforce perceptions of social exclusion and inadequacy. These findings support previous studies and meta-analytic evidence demonstrating that social media addiction is linked to greater loneliness and poorer social well-being (Ostic et al., 2021).

An important contribution of the present study is the examination of social media fatigue as a distinct predictor of mental health outcomes. We found that social media fatigue was independently associated with increased anxiety, depression, and loneliness. Social media fatigue has emerged as a consequence of continuous connectivity, information overload, excessive social demands, and exposure to overwhelming volumes of online content. Individuals experiencing fatigue may feel emotionally exhausted, disengaged, and overwhelmed by their online interactions. Previous research has suggested that such emotional exhaustion may contribute to anxiety and depressive symptoms, particularly when individuals perceive social media use as stressful or burdensome rather than rewarding (Dhir et al., 2018; Qin et al., 2024).

The positive association between social media fatigue and loneliness observed in our study may reflect the qualitative nature of online interactions. Although individuals may spend substantial amounts of time on social networking platforms, continuous exposure to superficial or emotionally demanding interactions may fail to satisfy deeper social and emotional needs. Consequently, users may experience emotional exhaustion alongside feelings of social disconnection and loneliness. These findings support theoretical perspectives suggesting that the quantity of online interactions does not necessarily translate into meaningful social connectedness or improved well-being (Dhir et al., 2018; Ostic et al., 2021).

The present study has several strengths. To our knowledge, it is among the first large-scale investigations in Greece to simultaneously examine the effects of social media addiction and social media fatigue on anxiety, depression, and loneliness in the general adult population. The use of validated psychometric instruments and a large sample size enhanced the robustness of the findings. Nevertheless, several limitations should be acknowledged. First, the cross-sectional design precludes causal inferences, and bidirectional relationships between problematic social media use and mental health outcomes cannot be excluded. Second, the use of convenience sampling and self-reported measures may have introduced selection and reporting biases. Third, information regarding specific patterns of social media engagement, exposure to harmful content, and pre-existing psychiatric conditions was not assessed.

In conclusion, our findings demonstrate that both social media addiction and social media fatigue are independently associated with higher levels of anxiety, depression, and loneliness among adults. These results highlight the potential psychological burden associated with problematic social media experiences and underscore the importance of promoting healthier digital behaviors. Future longitudinal studies are needed to clarify causal pathways and identify modifiable factors that may mitigate the adverse mental health consequences of social media use. Public health initiatives, digital literacy programs, and platform-based interventions may play a crucial role in fostering safer, healthier, and more supportive online environments.