The Quality of Advocacy Services in Primary School Social Work from the Perspective of Vietnamese Teachers

1. Introduction

In the context of global education facing numerous challenges related to inequality, cultural diversity, and the growing need for psychosocial support, the advocacy role of social workers is of paramount importance [1], especially in schools [2]. Studies have shown that structural barriers, social bias, economic stratification, and lack of resources have prevented many students, especially disadvantaged students, from accessing equitable learning opportunities, requiring professionals with advocacy skills to protect their rights and promote their comprehensive development [3,4,5].

In the area of school social work, advocacy has long been identified as a core task of social workers. Ezell [6] and Bliss [5] assert that advocacy is not only a professional skill but also a manifestation of the social worker’s ethical responsibility to support vulnerable groups. Modern advocacy models emphasize a care-oriented advocacy approach to ensure that service users are heard and their rights are protected [7]. In recent years, an advocacy model for trauma intervention for students has also been proposed, emphasizing sensitivity to the traumatic experiences of children and families [8].

In Vietnam, although school social work is newly established, it has made an important contribution to solving urgent school problems, especially in the context of increasing mental health problems, school violence, inequality in access to education and the lack of connection between family - school - community [9,10]. Therefore, advocacy in social work in general schools and in primary schools in particular is of urgent significance. However, in the context of Vietnam, there is still a lack of studies that systematically analyze primary school teachers' perspectives on advocacy services in school social work, as well as examine differences according to different socio-demographic factors. This leads to an important knowledge gap, because teachers' perceptions not only reflect their willingness to cooperate in student support activities, but also serve as a basis for assessing the ability to deploy and develop social work services in schools [11,12]). Therefore, the research questions raised to address this issue are as follows:

1) To what extent are teachers satisfied with the social work advocacy services in primary schools?

2) What are the differences in satisfaction ratings of social work advocacy services in primary schools according to different socio-demographic factors?

3) What policy recommendations can be made to improve the quality of social work advocacy services in primary schools?

Literature Review

In the field of education, social justice advocacy is considered an indispensable competency for social workers at all levels of education. Studies show that social workers tend to practice advocacy and at the same time encourage teachers to integrate advocacy into teaching through equity-oriented learning content, creating inclusive environments, and encouraging students to use their voices [13,14]. In schools in general and primary schools in particular, skills in advocacy services help social workers identify inequities, reflect on teaching practices, and proactively make changes to accommodate diverse student needs [15,16]. In multiethnic urban contexts, social workers and teachers also play a supporting and advocacy role for immigrant and refugee students and families to address language, cultural, and social barriers, thereby helping them integrate into school and community [17,18].

In school settings, social workers engage in advocacy at the individual, group, and system levels, including resource linkage, student rights advocacy, policy advocacy, and the development of inclusive, safe schools [19,20]. Studies of immigrant and refugee students show that social workers play an important role in facilitating cultural integration, reducing conflict, and promoting equitable educational opportunities [21,22]. At the policy level, advocacy also involves interactions with regulators, local governments, and legislatures, where cognitive differences between policymakers and advocates can influence implementation outcomes [23].

Many studies have emphasized the importance of interdisciplinary collaboration in student advocacy in schools. Effective coordination between teachers - social workers - school counselors -school psychologists helps to enhance the capacity to identify problems, expand resources and implement appropriate advocacy strategies for each student group [24,25]. In the field of school psychology, Rogers et al. [26] pointed out that psychologists who practice effective advocacy are often able to build interdisciplinary (social work) collaboration, use data, and orient children’s rights in school decisions. School counselors as well as social workers are learned to be one of the pillars, taking on an important role in advocacy for students. Moreover, in the process of consulting on client and client group issues, the implementation of advocacy is still limited [27]. Meanwhile, Haskins and Singh [28] demonstrated that school counselors’ advocacy capacity is made up of many factors such as ethical awareness, leadership skills, and collaboration ability. Similarly, Hermawan and Pransiska [29] emphasized that school counselors and social workers play a bridging role between students, parents, and schools in protecting learners’ development rights.

Internationally, many professional organizations have issued standards and guidelines for advocacy practice. NASW [30,31,32] affirms that advocacy is a core mission of school social workers, requiring them to participate in policy reform, promote equity, and improve service quality. In addition, there is increasing interest in measuring advocacy capacity, as demonstrated by the development of assessment tools such as the School-Based Advocacy and Awareness Scale (SBAAS) [33], which helps standardize the quality of practice in schools.

Therefore, building a legal framework, training human resources capable of advocating for policies, and developing interdisciplinary cooperation models for providing school social work services are urgent requirements for Vietnamese education [34]. At the same time, studies also point out many factors that affect advocacy effectiveness such as individual capacity, organizational environment, policy awareness and community support [35,36].

Although research has provided important evidence on the role, content, and meaning of advocacy in schools, there is currently a lack of research that delves into the perceptions of teachers – who directly witness students’ needs and are important partners of social workers in the advocacy process [13,16,24]. Particularly at the elementary level, where students have high levels of dependence on adults and are vulnerable to school inequities, teachers' views of advocacy services have a major influence on acceptance, cooperation, and implementation of support activities [19,20]. In addition, studies also suggest that teachers' personal characteristics and work-life contexts may influence their level of understanding and support for advocacy roles, including gender, career seniority, educational level, geographic region, and ethnic-cultural background [14,18,22].

In Vietnam, studies show that social work activities are still fragmented, lack specialized human resources and do not have a complete legal mechanism to support advocacy and protect students' rights [37]. This becomes a major barrier to the systematic and sustainable implementation of advocacy services in schools in general and primary schools in particular.

This study aims at three main objectives: (1) to assess teachers' satisfaction with advocacy services in social work in primary schools; (2) to analyze differences in teachers' satisfaction with advocacy services in social work in primary schools and factors affecting satisfaction with this service; (3) to propose policy implications to improve the quality of advocacy services in social work in primary schools.

2. Materials and Methods

Research Model

The research model is built based on the SERVQUAL theoretical framework of Parasuraman et al. (1985, 1988), to assess the difference in the level of satisfaction of primary school teachers with advocacy services in social work at school. The model focuses on five main dimensions of service quality including: Trust, Responsiveness, Capacity, Empathy and Conditions of Implementation. These factors affect satisfaction with the quality of advocacy services in social work at primary schools at different levels.

Population and Sample

The quantitative study surveyed 400 primary school teachers in Vietnam. However, 2 questionnaires were invalid due to incomplete answers to the survey questions, so the total number of valid questionnaires collected was 398. Teachers were selected from primary schools to ensure representativeness in terms of region, school size and occupational characteristics of the three regions of North, Central and South of Vietnam. Sample size characteristics are shown in Table 1.

Table 1 shows that the majority of teachers participating in the survey were female (73.6%), while 26.4% were male. The most common age group was from 35 to under 45 years old (36.7%), followed by the 25–35 year old group (25.9%). The majority of teachers were Kinh (91%). In terms of living area, 55% were in rural areas and 45% were in urban areas. Teachers came from three regions with the following proportions: the North 27.1%, the Central 42% and the South 30.9%. In terms of working experience, the group with 5 to under 10 years of experience accounted for the highest proportion (40.7%), followed by the group with over 15 years (28.4%). In terms of professional qualifications, the majority of teachers had a bachelor's degree (87.7%), while the remaining 12.3% had a master's degree. This sample size distribution is quite diverse, allowing for reliable statistical analysis while providing insightful quantitative information.

Instruments

A quantitative study was conducted to assess the level of teachers' satisfaction with different aspects of social work advocacy services in primary schools. To assess the level of primary school teachers' satisfaction with social work advocacy services, the study used a questionnaire based on the SERVQUAL model of Parasuraman et al. [38]. This scale consists of five levels from 1 (Completely dissatisfied) to 5 (Completely satisfied) to measure the level of teachers' agreement with statements related to service quality.

The survey indicators are built based on five basic service quality dimensions of SERVQUAL, including: (1) Trust (T): Ability to perform services accurately, reliably and on schedule, including 5 factors; (2) Responsiveness (R): Level of readiness and promptness to support and meet the needs of social workers, including 5 factors; (3) Capacity (C): Knowledge, professional skills and ability to create trust of social workers, including 5 factors; (4) Empathy (E): Level of concern, understanding and care of social workers, including 5 factors; (5) Conditions of implementation (IC): Conditions, support equipment and form of service implementation, including 5 factors. The questionnaire was designed to both assess overall satisfaction (Satisfaction - S, consisting of 5 factors) and identify specific aspects that teachers perceive about advocacy services.

The collected quantitative research results were processed on SPSS Version 26 software to test the reliability of the scale, exploratory factor analysis as well as T-Test, ANOVA and Pearson correlation to evaluate teachers' perspectives on satisfaction with advocacy services in social work at promary schools.

3. Results

To ensure the accuracy and reliability of the scales assessing teachers' perspectives on the level of satisfaction with advocacy services in social work at primary schools, the study conducted reliability testing using Cronbach's Alpha coefficient. The test results are shown in Table 2.

The results in Table 2 show that all scales achieved Cronbach's Alpha values above 0.7, specifically: Trust scale reached 0.986; Responsiveness 0.959; Capacity 0.880; Empathy 0.877; Conditions of Implementation 0.884 and Satisfaction 0.771. The item-total correlation coefficients of each item in the scales all exceeded 0.3, ensuring that each question was closely linked to the overall scale [39]. In particular, the Trust, Responsiveness and Capacity scales achieved very high Cronbach's Alpha coefficients, demonstrating excellent internal consistency and reliability. Although the Satisfaction scale had a slightly lower item-total correlation coefficient, it was still within acceptable limits, suitable for quantitative analysis in this study. These results confirmed that the survey instrument based on the SERVQUAL model has high reliability and is suitable to accurately reflect teachers' perspectives on the quality of advocacy services in social work at primary schools [38].

The study also conducted an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) to evaluate 5 factors affecting teachers' satisfaction with advocacy services in social work in primary schools. The results showed that the KMO coefficient = 0.834, sig Bartlett's Test = 0.000 < 0.05, so the factor analysis was appropriate. There were 5 factors extracted based on the eigenvalue criterion = 3.930 (>1), so these 5 factors summarized the information of 25 observed variables entered into EFA in the best way. The total variance extracted by these 5 factors was 67.905% > 50%, so the 5 extracted factors explained 67.905% of the data variation of 25 observed variables participating in EFA. Furthermore, the results of the EFA rotation matrix analysis are shown in Table 3.

The results of the EFA rotation matrix analysis from Table 3 show that the five extracted factors are consistent with the theoretical structure of the model, with the observed variables all loading strongly on the correct factor group (> 0.75). Specifically, the Reliability group (T1–T5) has loading factors ranging from 0.808 to 0.861; the Implementation Conditions group (IC1–IC5) loads from 0.810 to 0.840; the Competence group (C1–C5) loads from 0.814 to 0.831; the Empathy group (E1–E5) loads from 0.787 to 0.832; and the Responsiveness group (R1–R5) loads from 0.782 to 0.824. The loading factors all exceed the proposed threshold of 0.50, indicating that the scale has good convergent and discriminant validity (Hair et al., 2010). This result also confirms that the five-factor structure is appropriate and fully reflects the aspects of advocacy service quality in primary school social work based on the SERVQUAL model [38].

For the dependent variable of teachers' satisfaction with advocacy services in social work at primary schools, the results of of the EFA showed that the scale reached a level of statistical suitability. The KMO index reached 0.779, exceeding the minimum threshold of 0.5, and the Bartlett's Test had a Sig value = 0.001 (< 0.05), confirming that the data were completely suitable for factor analysis [39,40]. The factor extraction results showed that a single factor was formed with eigenvalue = 2.619 (>1), reflecting the validity according to Kaiser criteria. The total variance extracted reached 52.376%, exceeding the threshold of 50%, indicating that this factor explained more than half of the variation of the five observed variables in the scale. The rotation matrix shows that all five observed variables load onto the same factor with factor loadings: S5 = 0.758; S3 = 0.751; S2 = 0.721; S4 = 0.717; S1 = 0.668, respectively. The loadings are all higher than the threshold of 0.5, demonstrating good convergence of the measured variables and confirming the unidimensional structure of the scale. These results show that the satisfaction scale has good convergent validity and is suitable for use in subsequent analyses (Hair et al., 2010). Thus, the results of reliability testing and exploratory factor analysis (EFA) show that all scales meet the reliability requirements with Cronbach's Alpha coefficient > 0.7 and item-total correlation coefficient exceeding the threshold of 0.3. EFA analysis confirmed the five-factor structure with loading factors all > 0.5, ensuring good convergent and discriminant validity. This confirms that the scales used in the study have high reliability and are suitable for inclusion in subsequent analyses.

Teachers' satisfaction level with social work services in primary schools is shown in Table 4 on different aspects.

Teachers who participated in the survey (n = 398) generally gave positive evaluations of the quality of advocacy services in primary school social work. Descriptive results showed that the overall satisfaction level was quite high (M = 4.01, SD = 0.27), reflecting a relatively large consensus among teachers. Among the components of service quality, “Reliability” was rated the highest (M = 4.00, SD = 0.39), indicating that teachers believed that social workers fulfilled their professional commitments and maintained consistency in service. The factors “Responsiveness” (M = 3.91, SD = 0.54), “Competence” (M = 3.89, SD = 0.52) and “Empathy” (M = 3.91, SD = 0.52) were rated at a fair level, but the relatively large standard deviations showed significant differences in teachers' perceptions between schools or specific support situations. The factor “Implementation conditions” also achieved a positive rating (M = 3.89, SD = 0.35), reflecting the relatively secure facilities and service organization environment. Overall, these ratings show that teachers perceive advocacy services to be provided with a relatively good quality level, but there are still inconsistencies in some aspects related to the responsiveness and professional skills of social workers.

Teachers' satisfaction with the quality of advocacy services in social work in primary schools is also evaluated by different aspects such as: gender, age, ethnicity, location, region, seniority and education level. Independent t-test analysis was conducted to compare the satisfaction level of social work advocacy service quality between male and female teachers in primary schools (n = 398). The results showed that there was no statistically significant difference between male and female teachers in terms of “Reliability” (t(396) = –0.244, p > 0.05) and “Implementation conditions” (t(396) = –1.76, p > 0.05). However, statistically significant differences appeared in many important components of service quality. Specifically, male teachers rated “Responsiveness” (t(396) = –3.40, p = 0.001), “Competence” (t(396) = –3.26, p = 0.001), and “Empathy” (t(396) = –4.89, p < 0.001) higher than female teachers. However, there was no significant difference between the two genders in “Overall Satisfaction” (t(396) = 1.46, p > .05), indicating that despite differences in each component, the overall satisfaction levels of male and female teachers were relatively similar. Overall, the results indicated that male teachers tended to rate some aspects of advocacy services more positively than female teachers, especially in the responsiveness, professional competence, and empathy of social workers, but this did not significantly change the overall satisfaction levels between the two groups.

A one-way ANOVA was conducted to compare satisfaction levels with advocacy service quality among groups of teachers of five different age groups (n = 398). The results showed that there were statistically significant differences between age groups in all service components, including: “Reliability” (F(4, 393) = 3.28, p = 0.012), “Responsiveness” (F(4, 393) = 3.25, p = 0.012), “Competence” (F(4, 393) = 4.21, p = 0.002), “Empathy” (F(4, 393) = 4.29, p = .002), “Implementation conditions” (F(4, 393) = 3.39, p = 0.010) and “Overall satisfaction” (F(4, 393) = 2.93, p = 0.021). Looking at the mean values, it is evident that teachers aged over 55 consistently gave the highest ratings on most variables (M from 4.02 to 4.16), while those under 25 generally had lower mean scores than the other groups (M from 3.61 to 3.89). The middle-aged groups (25–54 years) tended to give fairly average and relatively stable ratings, fluctuating around 3.80–4.02. This suggests that age is a significant factor influencing teachers’ perceptions of the quality of advocacy services; specifically, older teachers showed more positive ratings of the effectiveness of support, professional competence, and empathy of primary school social workers.

Table 5. Comparing satisfaction with the quality of advocacy services in primary school social work by ethnicity.

Variables and Ethnic	n	M	SD	df	t	p
Trust(T)				396	1.31	0.189
Kinh	362	4.01	0.52
Ethnic minorities	36	3.92	0.57
Responsiveness (R)				396	-0.23	0.818
Kinh	362	3.91	0.56
Ethnic minorities	36	3.93	0.27
Capacity (C)				396	0.26	0.788
Kinh	362	3.90	0.53
Ethnic minorities	36	3.87	0.38
Empathy (E)				396	-0.02	0.980
Kinh	362	3.91	0.53
Ethnic minorities	36	3.92	0.40
Conditions of implementation (IC)				396	0.64	0.521
Kinh	362	3.90	0.36
Ethnic minorities	36	3.86	0.29
Satisfaction (S)				396	-2.06	0.040
Kinh	362	4.00	0.27
Ethnic minorities	36	4.10	0.26

*p<0.05.

Table 5. Comparing satisfaction with the quality of advocacy services in primary school social work by ethnicity.

Variables and Ethnic	n	M	SD	df	t	p
Trust(T)				396	1.31	0.189
Kinh	362	4.01	0.52
Ethnic minorities	36	3.92	0.57
Responsiveness (R)				396	-0.23	0.818
Kinh	362	3.91	0.56
Ethnic minorities	36	3.93	0.27
Capacity (C)				396	0.26	0.788
Kinh	362	3.90	0.53
Ethnic minorities	36	3.87	0.38
Empathy (E)				396	-0.02	0.980
Kinh	362	3.91	0.53
Ethnic minorities	36	3.92	0.40
Conditions of implementation (IC)				396	0.64	0.521
Kinh	362	3.90	0.36
Ethnic minorities	36	3.86	0.29
Satisfaction (S)				396	-2.06	0.040
Kinh	362	4.00	0.27
Ethnic minorities	36	4.10	0.26

*p<0.05.

Independent t-test analysis was conducted to compare the satisfaction level of advocacy service quality between Kinh teachers (n = 362) and teachers from ethnic minorities (n = 36). The results showed that there was no statistically significant difference between the two groups for the components “Reliability” (t(396) = 1.31, p = 0.189), “Responsiveness” (t(396) = –0.23, p = 0.818), “Competence” (t(396) = 0.26, p = .788), “Empathy” (t(396) = –0.02, p = 0.980) and “Implementation conditions” (t(396) = 0.64, p = 0.521). This shows that teachers from different ethnicities generally have similar assessments of the quality of advocacy service aspects. However, the results noted a statistically significant difference in the level of “Overall satisfaction” (t(396) = –2.06, p = 0.040), in which ethnic minority teachers reported higher satisfaction (M = 4.10, SD = 0.26) than Kinh teachers (M = 4.00, SD = 0.27). Although this difference was not large in terms of mean values, it showed a positive trend in meeting the needs and expectations of ethnic minority teachers for advocacy services in social work.

Independent t-test analysis was conducted to compare the satisfaction level with the quality of advocacy services between teachers living in rural (n = 204) and urban areas (n = 194). The results showed that there were statistically significant differences between the two groups in all service components. Specifically, urban teachers rated significantly higher than rural teachers on “Reliability” (t(396) = –4.64, p < 0.001), “Responsiveness” (t(396) = –6.61, p < 0.001), “Competence” (t(396) = –6.91, p < 0.001), “Empathy” (t(396) = –6.60, p < 0.001) and “Implementation conditions” (t(396) = –4.21, p < 0.001). These differences suggest that social work advocacy services in urban elementary schools may be provided with better levels of expertise, responsiveness, and emotional support than in rural areas. In addition, the level of “Overall Satisfaction” was also statistically significant (t(396) = –2.29, p = 0.022), with urban teachers expressing higher levels of satisfaction (M = 4.04, SD = 0.26) than rural teachers (M = 3.98, SD = 0.27). Overall, the results suggest that location is an important factor influencing teachers’ perceptions of the quality of advocacy services, with urban teachers tending to rate all aspects more positively.

Table 9. Comparing satisfaction with the quality of advocacy services in primary school social work by region.

Variables and Place of residence	n	M	SD	df	F(2, 395)	p
Trust(T)				395	11.39	0.000
Northern	132	4.07	0.32
Central	131	4.06	0.41
Southern	135	3.87	0.41
Responsiveness (R)				395	32.86	0.000
Northern	132	4.06	0.29
Central	131	4.05	0.40
Southern	135	3.62	0.71
Capacity (C)				395	38.24	0.000
Northern	132	4.04	0.31
Central	131	4.05	0.40
Southern	135	3.60	0.65
Empathy (E)				395	42.78	0.000
Northern	132	4.08	0.28
Central	131	4.07	0.41
Southern	135	3.61	0.64
Conditions of implementation (IC)				395	10.17	0.000
Northern	132	3.92	0.32
Central	131	3.97	0.37
Southern	135	3.79	0.34
Satisfaction (S)				395	0.14	0.869
Northern	132	4.00	0.26
Central	131	4.02	0.27
Southern	135	4.02	0.27

*p<0.05.

Table 9. Comparing satisfaction with the quality of advocacy services in primary school social work by region.

Variables and Place of residence	n	M	SD	df	F(2, 395)	p
Trust(T)				395	11.39	0.000
Northern	132	4.07	0.32
Central	131	4.06	0.41
Southern	135	3.87	0.41
Responsiveness (R)				395	32.86	0.000
Northern	132	4.06	0.29
Central	131	4.05	0.40
Southern	135	3.62	0.71
Capacity (C)				395	38.24	0.000
Northern	132	4.04	0.31
Central	131	4.05	0.40
Southern	135	3.60	0.65
Empathy (E)				395	42.78	0.000
Northern	132	4.08	0.28
Central	131	4.07	0.41
Southern	135	3.61	0.64
Conditions of implementation (IC)				395	10.17	0.000
Northern	132	3.92	0.32
Central	131	3.97	0.37
Southern	135	3.79	0.34
Satisfaction (S)				395	0.14	0.869
Northern	132	4.00	0.26
Central	131	4.02	0.27
Southern	135	4.02	0.27

*p<0.05.

One-way ANOVA was used to compare the satisfaction level with the quality of advocacy services among teachers in three regions: the North, the Central and the South with a total of 395 participants. The results showed that there were statistically significant differences between regions for most of the service elements, including: “Reliability” (F(2, 395) = 11.39, p < 0.001), “Responsiveness” (F(2, 395) = 32.86, p < 0.001), “Competence” (F(2, 395) = 38.24, p < 0.001), “Empathy” (F(2, 395) = 42.78, p < 0.001) and “Implementation conditions” (F(2, 395) = 10.17, p < 0.001). The mean values showed that teachers in the North and Central regions tended to rate all components higher (M ≈ 4.04–4.08) than teachers in the South, where the mean scores were significantly lower (M = 3.60–3.87). This indicates a significant regional difference in the perceived quality of social work advocacy services, with teachers in the South rating social workers’ reliability, competence, empathy, and responsiveness significantly lower. However, there was no statistically significant difference in “Overall Satisfaction” between the three regions (F(2, 395) = 0.14, p = .869), indicating that although perceptions of individual service components differed, overall satisfaction remained relatively consistent.

To examine the differences in satisfaction with the quality of advocacy services among groups of teachers with different seniority, including: less than 5 years, from 5 to less than 10 years, from 10 to less than 15 years and over 15 years, a one-way ANOVA was conducted. The results showed that there were statistically significant differences between seniority groups for the factors “Trustworthiness” (F(3, 394) = 3.31, p = 0.020) and “Empathy” (F(3, 394) = 2.76, p = 0.042). Observing the mean values shows that the group of teachers with more than 15 years of experience tends to rate reliability higher (M = 4.06, SD = 0.43), while the group of teachers from 10 to less than 15 years has the lowest rating (M = 3.89, SD = 0.45). For the factor “Empathy”, the group from 10 to less than 15 years continues to have the lowest rating (M = 3.77, SD = 0.58), while the group over 15 years and the group from 5 to less than 10 years have higher mean scores (M ≈ 3.95–3.97). In contrast, the factors “Responsiveness” (p = 0.076), “Competence” (p = 0.071), “Implementation Conditions” (p = 0.056), and “Overall Satisfaction” (p = 0.695) did not show statistically significant differences between seniority groups. This suggests that although seniority has a certain influence on the perception of social workers’ trustworthiness and empathy, teachers’ overall satisfaction levels remain relatively similar regardless of years of experience.

In order to assess the difference in satisfaction with the quality of advocacy services between groups of teachers with different educational levels, including bachelor's and master's degrees (no doctoral degree), the study also analyzed One-way ANOVA. The results showed that there was a statistically significant difference between the two groups for the factors "Reliability" (F(1, 396) = 16.84, p < 0.001) and "Implementation conditions" (F(1, 396) = 5.32, p = 0.022). Accordingly, teachers with bachelor's degrees rated reliability higher (M = 4.03, SD = 0.38) than the master's group (M = 3.79, SD = 0.41). Similarly, the mean score on implementation conditions in the bachelor group (M = 3.91, SD = 0.34) was also higher than the master group (M = 3.78, SD = 0.41). However, for the factors “Responsiveness” (p = 0.482), “Competence” (p = 0.067), “Empathy” (p = 0.139), and “Overall Satisfaction” (p = 0.801), there was no statistically significant difference between the two educational level groups. This shows that although educational level affects the perception of reliability and service delivery conditions, teachers’ overall perception of advocacy service quality remains relatively consistent across groups.

Evaluating teachers’ satisfaction with advocacy services not only provides data reflecting the effectiveness of social work implementation in primary schools but also allows identifying key factors influencing this process. Correlation analysis between factors will help guide solutions to improve services in the future.

Table 12. Correlation of factors and teachers' satisfaction with advocacy services in primary school social work.

Variables	1	2	3	4	5	6
1. Trust (T)	1
2. Responsiveness (R)	0.122*	1
3. Capacity (C)	0.139**	0.543**	1
4. Empathy (E)	0.095	0.567**	0.822**	1
5. Conditions of implementation (IC)	0.115*	0.556**	0.805**	0.839**	1
6. Satisfaction (S)	0.127*	0.468**	0.475**	0.471**	0.482**	1

*p<0.05; **p<0.01.

Table 12. Correlation of factors and teachers' satisfaction with advocacy services in primary school social work.

Variables	1	2	3	4	5	6
1. Trust (T)	1
2. Responsiveness (R)	0.122*	1
3. Capacity (C)	0.139**	0.543**	1
4. Empathy (E)	0.095	0.567**	0.822**	1
5. Conditions of implementation (IC)	0.115*	0.556**	0.805**	0.839**	1
6. Satisfaction (S)	0.127*	0.468**	0.475**	0.471**	0.482**	1

*p<0.05; **p<0.01.

Pearson correlation analysis was conducted to assess the relationship between advocacy service quality dimensions and teacher satisfaction in elementary schools. The results showed that all dimensions were positively correlated with satisfaction, albeit to varying degrees. Specifically, “Reliability” (r = 0.122, p < 0.05), “Responsiveness” (r = 0.139, p < 0.01), “Empathy” (r = 0.115, p < 0.05), and “Implementation Conditions” (r = 0.127, p < 0.05) all had statistically significant positive correlations with overall teacher satisfaction. Meanwhile, “Competence” had a positive but statistically insignificant correlation (r = 0.095, p > 0.05). In addition, the service quality factors were strongly and statistically significantly correlated with each other, with Pearson correlation coefficients ranging from 0.468** to 0.839** (p < 0.01), indicating that aspects such as competence, responsiveness, empathy, and reliability were closely linked in teachers' perceptions. This result emphasizes that, although each individual factor has a different influence on overall satisfaction, advocacy service quality is rated higher when these factors are performed well together.

4. Discussion

The results of the study showed that primary school teachers’ satisfaction with social work advocacy services was generally quite high, reflecting positive evaluations of service aspects such as reliability, responsiveness, competence, empathy, and implementation conditions. These findings are similar to previous studies, emphasizing the importance of service quality in enhancing teachers’ experiences and social work effectiveness [11,12].

Demographic analysis showed that teachers’ personal factors had different effects on perceptions of service quality. Specifically, male teachers rated “Responsiveness”, “Competence” and “Empathy” higher than female teachers, which may reflect differences in expectations or actual experiences between gender groups, consistent with studies in educational services and social work. Age also had a significant effect, with teachers over 55 years old rating the highest, while those under 25 rated lower. This result indicates that long-term life and work experience can enhance positive perceptions of services, consistent with theories of professional maturity and trust in support services [41].

Ethnicity and educational level only affected certain factors, such as reliability and implementation conditions, while overall satisfaction was almost uniform. This suggests that cultural and educational factors may shape how teachers evaluate specific aspects of services, but do not change overall perceptions of service quality. In contrast, location and region had a significant impact: urban teachers and teachers from the North and Central regions rated most factors higher. This difference reflects the distribution of resources, physical conditions and access to social work services across regions, consistent with previous studies on regional inequality in education and public services [42] as well as in the field of providing school social work services [43]. Seniority has a limited effect, mainly on the factors “Trust” and “Empathy”, suggesting that long-term work experience contributes to shaping detailed perceptions of service quality but does not significantly influence overall satisfaction.

Pearson correlation analysis showed that all service factors had a positive relationship with satisfaction, in which “Responsiveness”, “Trust”, “Empathy” and “Conditions of implementation” were statistically significant. These factors also had strong correlations with each other (r from 0.468** to 0.839**, p < 0.01), reflecting the consistency in how teachers rated service quality. This result is also consistent with the studies of Do et al. [12] and Nguyen et al. [44], which emphasizes that empathy, trust, and the conditions for providing social work services are key factors in contributing to solving students' problems. These are also major challenges for social workers and schools in Vietnam, in the context of current educational reforms and holistic student development. On the other hand, this result emphasized that improving all aspects of service – from reliability to responsiveness and empathy - would increase overall satisfaction, consistent with the SERVQUAL model [38].

5. Conclusions

This study shows that primary school teachers’ satisfaction with social work advocacy services is generally quite good, especially in the aspects of reliability, responsiveness, competence, empathy and implementation conditions. However, teachers’ satisfaction is influenced by demographic characteristics such as gender, age, location and region, while seniority and education level have only limited influence. Specifically, male teachers, older teachers, teachers living in urban areas and teachers from the North and Central regions often rate the quality of services higher.

Pearson correlation analysis showed that all service quality factors had a positive relationship with overall satisfaction, in which “Responsiveness”, “Trust”, “Empathy” and “Conditions of implementation” were statistically significant. The strong correlation between service factors showed that teachers perceived service quality as a coherent whole, consistent with the SERVQUAL model [38].

These results provide important practical implications for improving the quality of advocacy services in primary school social work. First, managers and policy makers should focus on improving key service elements such as reliability, responsiveness, and empathy. At the same time, appropriate adjustments are needed to reduce differences in perceptions among groups of teachers, especially teachers in rural or resource-limited areas. Training and capacity development programs for primary school social workers should emphasize consistent service delivery, along with communication and relationship skills, and interdisciplinary coordination, to improve teacher satisfaction and advocacy service quality.

So, teacher satisfaction depends on the overall quality of service elements and some demographic characteristics. Improving the quality of service aspects will not only improve teacher satisfaction but also contribute to increasing the effectiveness of school social work. These results provide a quantitative basis for proposing policies, solutions and further research directions to improve advocacy services in primary education settings.

Although the study provides valuable information on primary school teachers’ satisfaction with social work advocacy services, there are some limitations. The data are based primarily on self-report surveys, are quantitative in nature, and may be subject to subjective bias. In addition, the cross-sectional study does not allow for the determination of causal relationships between service elements and satisfaction, and does not consider other external factors such as physical conditions or work pressure. These limitations should be considered in interpreting the results and guiding further research.