Educational Guidance as an Indispensable Element for Quality Education: Conceptual Framework and Intervention Models in Spain

1. Introduction

"[...] involves the process of systematic and professional help/support, through the use of educational and interpretative procedures with the aim of: improving self-knowledge; teaching how to solve problems of various kinds; teaching how to make prudent decisions; how to make responsible life project planning; and, finally, teaching how to relate fruitfully to the local and global environment" [10] (p. 40).

"[…] counseling is also a process of help, of a direct and interpersonal nature, which, through personal, face-to-face communication, aims to contribute to the solution and/or improvement of the person's problems" [10] (p.41).

Figure 1. Conceptual framework for guidance intervention. Source: Adapted from Bisquerra and Álvarez González [11] (p.14).

Figure 1. Conceptual framework for guidance intervention. Source: Adapted from Bisquerra and Álvarez González [11] (p.14).

2. Materials and Methods

3. Results

3.1. Guidance Intervention Models

The proposal made by De la Oliva et al. shows that psycho-pedagogical intervention is articulated within the framework of the so-called intervention models [13]. In the scientific and professional field, the term is not used in a univocal way. In general, it is understood as a concept that straddles theory and practice. From a practical perspective, a model can be considered to be the set of strategies used to achieve the proposed results [21]. On a more theoretical level, Rodríguez Diéguez points out that models in counselling make theory more accessible from systematic approaches, and allow the selection of empirical facts for the elaboration of theories [22]. Therefore, it can be said that the model is understood as the instrument that allows theory to be brought closer to practice, to contrast this theory and to serve as a frame of reference for research and intervention.

There are various classifications of the models of intervention in guidance, according to issues as diverse as their history and trajectory, the type of help, the professional style, according to the theoretical-conceptual framework of reference, the type of intervention or its organizational nature. In this case, a classification has been adopted according to the type of intervention, selecting the models most recognized by different authors (Table 3).

There is a general consensus, as can be seen in Table 3, on the nature of the counseling, consultation and program models. Bisquerra considers these to be the basic models of educational guidance and psycho-pedagogical intervention [38]. The service model, and its extension to services acting by programs, has been questioned by different specialists. Santana Vega states that "the service model is not a model in itself either, it is, in fact, the result of the organization of support agents (external or internal) to the school institution" [10] (p. 97). The technological model has been much more questioned. Authors such as Vélaz de Madrano or Santana Vega believe that technologies are a resource at the service of guidance rather than a model in itself [9,10]. In contrast, Pantoja, a precursor and advocate of the model, is optimistic about its possibilities and progress [35]. The truth is that, for the moment, the model or quasi-model has not achieved the expected development and scope.

In this way, the basic models of counseling intervention (counseling or clinical model, consultation model and program model) are developed in depth and in detail, and the service model and the technological model are presented succinctly.

3.1.1. Counseling Model

At the beginning of the article the main differences between guidance and counseling were discussed, concluding that the latter is a model within the broad field of educational guidance. This model, also called clinical or counseling, is characterized by having a strong remedial or therapeutic character, which is why it is also called clinical model. Direct and interpersonal communication, generally through the interview, is a key element of this model, hence another name for this model is counseling. It can be affirmed that it responds to the archetypical image that el has of educational guidance.

This model has its origins in Pearson's model, Differential Psychology, Psychometry, Mental Hygiene, the traits and factors approach, and other therapeutic contribution [29]. Its fundamental objective in the helping relationship is to attend to the needs that the person may have in different areas such as personal, educational or socio-professional [41]. For Pantoja there are four areas of intervention for which this model is particularly appropriate, according to the proposal of the American School Counselor Association (ASCA) [35]. These are: intervention in family, interpersonal, academic and personal adjustment problems. In any case, the basic characteristics of this model should be underlined:

−

Personal, direct and individual assistance relationship.

−

Dyadic character: counsellor and counselee.

−

Asymmetric relationship.

−

Therapeutic and reactive purposes.

Therefore, the method par excellence used in this guidance intervention is the interview [17,38,41]. Benavent and Fossati masterfully define this:

"A communication process that acts on two levels (cognitive and emotional) and that takes place in three dimensions: interviewer-coach, interviewee-coachee and context (...). The purpose of the interview in the helping relationship is to help people to better understand and cope with their existential problems and to improve communication and interpersonal relationships by creating a facilitating climate (rapport) that favors the personal involvement of the person being helped in the process" [41] (p. 72).

Rapport and empathy are key aspects for the functioning of the model. Recent studies show the positive effect of rapport between counsellor and client on the results of therapy. It has been demonstrated that a good therapeutic alliance and the positive perception of this by the client are crucial aspects for the effectiveness of the treatment [42]. Other works centred on the impact of empathy in interviews of different kinds point in the same direction, being a key aspect for the success of the interviews [43,44,45].

For this reason, in this model, the counsellor is the one who directs the intervention process, and their training and technical preparation are key. For Santana Vega [10], the attitudes, treatment and procedures used by the interviewer are key to the functioning of the interview and the establishment of an adequate rapport. Thus, he considers that acceptance and understanding are indispensable elements in the model. Therefore, it requires the interviewer to have the following characteristics [37,38]:

−

Authenticity and sincerity. Ability of the interviewer to be free, genuine and sincere.

−

Empathy. Ability to perceive what the interviewee is experiencing, identify with him/her, share his/her feelings and communicate appropriately.

−

Closeness and understanding. Ability to be approachable, respecting the dignity of the person being interviewed and showing acceptance of the interviewee's decisions.

−

Concreteness. Ability to express in concrete and specific terms with feelings expressed by the interviewee.

−

Confrontation of incongruities. Ability to adequately show discrepancies be-tween what the interviewee thinks, feels, says and does.

−

Assertiveness. Ability of the interviewer to express opinions and thoughts in an appropriate manner and without denying, offending or demeaning the interviewee.

−

Personalization. Ability to help the oriented person to take ownership of his or her problem, accepting his or her degree of control and assuming responsibility for it.

−

Self-disclosure. Ability to share, in a measured and responsible manner, the interviewer's personal feelings and experiences for the benefit of the person being inter-viewed.

−

Acceptance of the person being interviewed. This is a fundamental attitude of the person being interviewed. In the words of Repetto "positive and unconditional acceptance, respect and cordiality" [37] (p. 271).

−

Self-realization. Ability to live autonomously, freely and openly, that is, to be self-directed.

−

Relationship to the moment. Ability of the interviewer to interpret the feelings of the interviewee and the relational situation between the interviewee and the interviewee in each moment, that is, in the here and now.

According to the review carried out, the model is specified in the following intervention phases [32,37]:

• Initial phase: beginning of the helping relationship:
  Request for assistance from the person in need. An appropriate relationship is established between the counseling specialist and the person being counseled.
• Phase one: diagnosis:
  Diagnosis of the situation posed by the person requesting help. Internalization and self-exploration by the person requesting help. Top-down character.
• Phase two: treatment:
  Treatment is issued based on diagnosis. Construction and initiation of action. Self-concept, self-acceptance and self-esteem are enhanced. Bottom-up and constructive character.
• Evaluation phase:
  Follow-up and evaluation of the intervention.

Counselling as a direct and individual intervention with reactive aims is conducive to solving various health problems, especially in the field of mental health. Its therapeutic nature connects it directly with SDG 3 ‘Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages’, its impact on improving personal well-being in the treatment of different health problems having been demonstrated [46,47].

3.1.2. Consultation Model

It arose as a response to the inadequacy of the clinical model in the field of education and given its relevance in the development of organizations. In our country, the first publications on this model appeared in the 1980s. In any case, it has acquired a great boom, exercising its function from a therapeutic, preventive or developmental perspective.

This model focuses on indirect action on groups or individuals. Hervás Avilés based on the conceptual analysis of various definitions, points out eleven characteristics of the model. These are [36] (p.177):

• The consultation is a relational model, as it includes all the characteristics of the counseling relationship.
• It is a model that promotes information and training of professionals and for professionals.
• It is based on a symmetrical relationship between people or professionals with similar status, in which there is acceptance and respect that favors equal treatment (Figure 2).
• It is a triadic relationship involving three types of agents: consultant, consultant, client (Figure 2).
• The relationship can be established not only with individuals, but also with representatives of services, resources and programs.
• Its objective is to help a third party, which may be an individual or a group (Figure 2).
• It approaches the relationship from different approaches: therapeutic, preventive and developmental.
• The relationship is temporary, not permanent.
• The consultant intervenes indirectly with the client, although, extraordinarily, he may do so directly (Figure 2).
• The consultant acts as an intermediary and mediator between the consultant and the client (Figure 2).
• It is necessary to work with all persons substantially related to the client.

This model makes individual and group guidance interventions more effective, since it is essential that all the agents involved intervene: teachers, parents, the educational institution, etc. Consequently, the role of the counselor is not only focused on the subject, but also acts as a consultant, trainer, generator of changes in all the people involved. Therefore, as Bisquerra [38] indicates, its two main goals are: (a) to increase the consultant's competence in his/her relations with a client, and (b) to develop the consultant's skills so that he/she will be able to solve similar problems by him/herself in the future.

As can be seen in Figure 3, the following figures can be distinguished in this model:

−

Adviser (specialist): Works in collaboration with the organization.

−

Consultant: Seeks help with the consultant through a systematic process of problem solving, social influence and professional support. In turn assists clients through the selection and application of interventions.

−

Clients: People who receive assistance indirectly.

Figure 2. Schematic of the consultation model. Source: Adapted from Hervás Avilés [36] (p. 177) and Bisquerra [38] (p.189).

Figure 2. Schematic of the consultation model. Source: Adapted from Hervás Avilés [36] (p. 177) and Bisquerra [38] (p.189).

Following Caplan [48], four specific types or modes of consultation can be distinguished, depending on the object of the consultant's attention/action: (a) client-centered consultation; (b) consultant-centered consultation; (c) program-centered consultation; and (d) organization-centered consultation. In the first of these, the focus will be on understanding the problem, need or difficulty that the client has. The specialist will try to increase the techniques of the client in order to improve the client's situation. In the second, the attention will be focused on the client, identifying, in this, hindering elements that are hindering the client's situation. According to Caplan the consultant may have a lack of knowledge, lack of skills, loss of self-confidence or objectivity with respect to the client. In the third, the consultation is directed to a new program or the improvement of the existing one. Finally, following the same author, the consultation focuses on the organization itself. It takes place when, despite the existence of sufficient resources, the objectives are not achieved. In this case, the difficulties are located in attitudinal elements present in the personal resources of the system [48].

In general, this model is appropriate in the fields of mental health, organizations and education [10,38,49], connecting with SDG 3 and SDG 4. It is an indirect intervention of a corrective, preventive or developmental nature, the objective of which, in the school environment, is the training of teachers as guides or tutors. The model aims to train teachers in the role of guidance counsellor, a key aspect of a comprehensive and inclusive school model. In other words, this model connects directly with Goal 4 ‘Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all’. Its basic characteristics are:

−

Objective: to help a third party (person or group).

−

It follows the three principles of guidance.

−

The relationship is temporary.

−

The adviser intervenes indirectly.

−

The consultant is a mediator.

−

It requires working with all the people substantially related to the client.

3.1.3. Model Programs

Most authors agree that this model arose as a response to the limitations of the models that preceded it, such as the clinical model or the service model [17]. It is an eminently pedagogical model, based on didactics and the design of educational programs. However, the terme has been coined by different types of professionals, with a certain polysemy, but it has mostly been linked to planning for the learning of its recipients. Bisquerra after a conceptual analysis of the term program, defines it as "a continuous action, previously planned, aimed at achieving certain objectives, with the purpose of satisfying needs, and/or enriching, developing or enhancing certain competencies" [38] (p. 85). It is, therefore, a direct intervention on groups, which is a differential aspect with respect to other models. In this sense, Grañeras Pastrana and Parras Laguna [17] emphasize that this model, of a proactive nature, is aimed at the bulk of the educational community, being the only one that guarantees the educational nature of guidance [23].

From a temporal perspective, programs are continuous actions developed over a more or less prolonged period of time [38]. It is important to emphasize that these are not one-off actions, such as talks or workshops, but more profound proposals that have an impact on people's behavior and lives. However, their size means that we can talk about microprograms, when they are of short length, which are usually integrated into broader programmes. In this sense, Fernández Rey [50] discusses the different possibilities offered by intervention in the programme model: occasional guidance, parallel programmes, op-tional subjects, synthesis subjects, tutorial action, curricular integration, interdisciplinary curricular integration, integrated programme systems. Those strategies that are integrated into the curriculum can be considered adequate, given the positioning of guidance at the educational pole [13,14]. Therefore, tutorial action is proposed as a starting point and the program model is linked to the spiral curriculum (Figure 3). This curriculum is based on successive steps through the same domain of knowledge, in order to promote the learning of the deep structure in an increasingly powerful and reasoned way [51]. This approach, not only enhances the construction of the learning itself, but also facilitates intuitive thinking about it [52]. Moreover, as indicated by Harden and Stamper [53] this approach can break down the barriers and boundaries between courses and levels, allowing a gradual and integrated learning of the contents linked to the tutorial action [54,55] (Figure 3).

In any case, beyond the extension of the program or degree of curricular integration, the model assumes the characteristics of educational programs, and therefore follows a process that contemplates different phases in its development. In general, most authors consider among these phases the analysis of the context, the detection of needs and establishment of objectives, the design and planning of the program, the development and monitoring of the program, its evaluation and the proposal of improvement actions, with no major differences among the proposals [9,10,12,17,36,37,38,39,40]. Of the review carried out, the phases proposed by Álvarez González and Bisquerra [12] can be highlighted for their specificity, similar to those illustrated by Repetto [37] (Figure 4):

−

Analysis of the context, mainly environmental factors, organization, structure, attitudes, etc.

−

Identification of needs.

−

Formulation of objectives, these must be clear, concrete, concise and operational.

−

Program planning, mainly through the sequencing of activities.

−

Program development and implementation: of the proposed activities and strategies.

−

Evaluation of the program, both of the process and its effectiveness.

−

Assessment of program costs. To which could be added, decision making on the improvement, continuity or modification of the program.

Figure 3. Program intervention strategies integrated in the curriculum Source: Simplified adaptation of Fernández Rey [50] (p. 56).

Figure 3. Program intervention strategies integrated in the curriculum Source: Simplified adaptation of Fernández Rey [50] (p. 56).

Figure 4. Phases of the program development process. Source: Repetto [37] (p. 304).

Figure 4. Phases of the program development process. Source: Repetto [37] (p. 304).

In summary, program intervention is characterized by being an intervention developed according to the diagnosed needs (of the students, teachers, the center, the institution's services, etc.). This makes it very versatile, in addition to bringing guidance closer to a larger number of clients [37]. Its preventive and developmental potential is indisputable, being remarkable its capacity to focus on the needs of the people being guided and the intervention on the context itself. The model acts by objectives over a period of time, and it is advisable that the programs be continuous and integrated into the curriculum, which makes it an especially relevant model for the development of goal 4. As already indicated, the action is proactive, involving all agents and users. For this reason, it is the most suitable model for enhancing human development, promoting healthy habits, developing personal and social skills, preventing difficulties and preparing people for adaptation, change and problem solving.

This model has a high potential for working on the objectives of sustainable development in the classroom, especially those related to health (goal 3), coexistence (goals 5 and 16) and equality (goals 5 and 10). Among the main objectives of this model are the promotion of health and the development of skills that enable responsible and healthy decision-making. In this sense, different studies and meta-analyses show the effectiveness of this model in the prevention of drug addiction [55], eating disorders [56,57], in the promotion of sexual health and the prevention of sexual risks [58,59,60,61]. The development of personal and social skills that foster coexistence and contribute to the eradication of any form of discrimination or violence are also priority aims of this model. In this sense, various studies and meta-analyses on gender violence prevention programs demonstrate the effectiveness of the model [62,63,64,65,66], which supports its contribution to Goal 5 "Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls”.

3.1.4. Service Model and Service Model Acting by Programs

This model has had an important development in Europe, since it has taken a long time for guidance to be integrated into educational institutions [17]. In Spain, during the dictatorship this type of services were practically nonexistent, and in the 1970s they reappeared with a marked therapeutic character. The model focuses on direct action on some members of the population, generally in situations of risk or deficit. The characteristic features of this model are [40]:

−

Direct intervention by specialists on subjects with a need, difficulty or at-risk situation, focusing on the problem.

−

External and sectorial in nature, as they are usually located in specific areas outside educational institutions.

−

Corrective intervention, mainly of a therapeutic nature.

−

They act mainly on the basis of functions (generally set by the Administration), although there may be objectives.

−

The functions of the specialist are mainly evaluation, diagnosis and psycho-pedagogical counseling, information on academic and professional itineraries, support for integration and design and implementation of curricular adaptations and attention to diversity, among others.

The interventions of this model can be group-based. This model follows a two-phase procedure: (1) The request for assistance is made by the subject in need of help; and (2). The institution attends to the applicant's requirements.

Intervention may vary depending on whether the service is public or private. In private counseling services, the intervention is carried out through a service model that introduces the appropriate adaptations. The service model is fully identified with public social and educational institutions. The tasks and functions developed by the guidance services are generally predominantly top-down, generally acting on the problem and not on the context in which the situation develops. It is a remedial intervention, centered on the specialist, where there is little involvement of educational and community agents. In this sense, several authors [17,39] point out the following limitations or drawbacks of the model:

−

Little connection with the school institution, in addition to a certain lack of knowledge about it.

−

Little contextualization of the problems and their own interventions.

−

Broad and predefined functions set by the Administration (objectives are forgotten).

−

Its approach is mainly therapeutic, neglecting the principles of development and prevention.

−

Activities are often limited to diagnosis through the use of psychometric tests.

−

Limitations of time, schedule and resources to address the assigned functions and train the teachers who carry out the tutorial action. The timetable, moreover, does not facilitate work with the family and the community.

For all these reasons, the program-based service model has become widespread in recent decades. It involves direct intervention with groups at risk or in deficit. It is unique in that it considers the analysis of needs as a preliminary step to any planning, and once these needs have been identified, specific intervention programs are designed. For Vélaz de Medrano [9], the combination of the service model with the program model offers great possibilities, overcoming the disadvantages of both models. Like other authors, we consider that services, whether or not they act through programs, are not a model in themselves, but the application or combination of other models such as advice, consultation or programs [10,38]. The combination of approaches allows for more integrated and systemic action, maximizing the contribution to the sustainable development objectives set out in the previous models.

3.1.5. Technological Model

This model is not recognized by all authors (Table 3) Vélaz de Madrano, Martínez Clares and Santana Vega [9,10,33], for example, consider that Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) are a resource at the service of guidance rather than a model in itself. In contrast, authors such as Pantoja give ICTs a higher status. In any case, whether as a model or as a resource, there is a general consensus on the potential of ICT in the field of guidance [35,67]. It can be affirmed that at present it is still being discussed whether technology at the service of guidance should be characterized as an intervention model or as a psycho-pedagogical resource.

In Spain, Rodríguez Espinar et al. who state the following provide one of the first references to this model:

"This model based on systems and/or self-applicable programs does not eliminate the figure and functions of the counselor. The counselor will have to be present in the process playing the role of consultant, clarifying doubts, solving problems, commenting on some of the information provided and helping the subject in his work of synthesis and reflection. The purpose of these systems is to free the counselor in informative tasks and leave him/her freer to carry out his/her consultation and counseling functions. This model, fully realized, can contribute to the development of the functions of guidance interaction" [23] (p. 191-182).

From this perspective, either as a model or as a resource, ICTs can increase the efficiency of the guidance action, maximize resources, automate tasks and expand the potential number of people using/targeting educational guidance. ICTs support the rest of the models described above. In this sense, more specifically, Pantoja proposes the integration of ICT in a comprehensive intervention program, mainly aimed at prevention and development [35,67]. In this way, according to Pantoja, the dimensions of external - internal, direct - indirect and individual - group intervention alternate, depending on the needs of each moment [35,67]. The model, therefore, will approach the different models described, all according to figure 5.

In recent times, various technological resources have been developed for the purpose of guidance. The following can be mentioned: Guidance program, Socio-school, SAVI-2000, Self-Help Program for Decision Making at the End of Compulsory Secondary Education, Self-Applied Program for the Control of Test Anxiety, Decide Your Itinerary Program, Sexumusu Affective-Sexual Education Program, Detective for dyslexia, Vocational Test, etc. Nowadays, a person who needs help choosing a profession can receive assistance from a computer, for example, to: find out about different occupations, compare educational programs, obtain information about scholarships and other training aids or to learn job search strategies, etc. In addition to the aforementioned benefits, ICTs have made it possible to develop the following through the computer: automation of the administration and scoring of vocational interest tests, their computerized interpretation, computer-assisted counseling, etc.

Figure 5. Defining categories of the orientation models integrating the technological model. Source: Pantoja [67] (p. 197).

Figure 5. Defining categories of the orientation models integrating the technological model. Source: Pantoja [67] (p. 197).

Various studies confirm the potential and effectiveness of the use of ICT in educational guidance, especially in issues related to SDG 4. The use of ICT can significantly improve teaching and learning outcomes [68,69]. Technology-mediated games, for example, promote educational inclusion and the development of social skills that are essential for coexistence [68,70]. Technologies are also excellent allies in tutorial action, having demonstrated their positive impact on the development of emotional skills [71]. Other studies, in the field of health, have shown that rapport and the therapeutic alliance are not affected in teleconsultation therapy [72,73], and some studies even suggest that teletherapy is perceived as more effective than individual counseling [74]. In short, whether as a tool or as a model, ICTs can facilitate the work of guidance, contributing to the work of the sustainable development goals indicated in the rest of the model (SDG 3, SDG 4, SDG 5, SDG 10, SDG 16).

4. Discussion and Conclusions

Abbreviations

References

1. Artyukhov, A.; Vasylieva, T.; Artyukhova, N.; Wołowiec, T.; Bogacki, S. SDG 4, Academic Integrity and Artificial Intelligence: Clash or win-win cooperation? Sustainability 2024, 16, 8483. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
2. Saini, M.; Singh, H.; Singh, M.; Singh, J.; Sengupta, E. Sustainable Development Goal for Quality Education (SDG 4): A study on SDG 4 to extract the pattern of association among the indicators of SDG 4 Employing a Genetic Algorithm. Education and Information Technologies 2022, 28, 2031–2069. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
3. Convention on the Rights of the Child. Annual review of population law 1989, 16, 95–501.
4. Ammentorp, J.; Ehrensvärd, M.; Uhrenfeldt, L.; Angel, F.; Carlsen, E.B.; Kofoed, P.-E. Can life coaching improve health outcomes? A systematic review of intervention studies. BMC Health Serv Res 2013, 13, 428–439. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
5. Erdös, T.; Ramseyer, F.T. Change process in coaching: interplay of nonverbal synchrony, working alliance, self-regulation, and goal attainment. Frontiers in Psychology 2021, 12, 580351. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
6. Sánchez Mirón, B.; Boronat Mundina, J. Coaching educativo: modelo para el desarrollo de competencias intra e interpersonales. Educación xx1 2014, 17, 221–242. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
7. Taylor, D. Career coaching in private practice a personal view. Journal of the National Institute for Career Education and Counselling 2024, 30, 13–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
8. De Haan, E.; Nilsson, V.O.; Molyn, J. New findings on the effectiveness of the coaching relationship: time to think differently about active ingredients? Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research 2020, 72, 155–167. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
9. Vélaz de Medrano, C. Orientación e intervención psicopedagógica. Concepto, modelos, programas y evaluación. Aljibe: Málaga, España; 1998.
10. Santana Vega, L.E. Orientación educativa e intervención psicopedagógica. Cambian los tiempos, cambian las responsabilidades profesionales. Pirámide: Madrid, España; 2009.
11. Bisquerra, R.; Álvarez González, M. Concepto de orientación e intervención psicopedagógica. En Modelos de orientación e intervención psicopedagógica 1ªed.; Bisquerra Alzina, R., Eds.; Ciss Praxis: Valencia, España; 1998, pp. 9–2.
12. Álvarez González, M.; Bisquerra Alzina, R. Orientación educativa: modelos, áreas, estrategias y recursos. Wolters Kluwer: Madrid, España; 2012.
13. De la Oliva, D.; Martín Ortega, E.; Vélaz de Medrano, C. Modelos de intervención psicopedagógica en centros de educación secundaria: identificación y evaluación. Infancia y aprendizaje, 2005, 28, 115–140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
14. Sole, I.; Martín, E. Un modelo educativo para la orientación y el asesoramiento. En Orientación educativa. Modelos y estrategias de intervención,; Martín Obregon, E., Solé i Gallart, I., Eds.; Grao, Barcelona, España, 2011; pp.13-32.
15. Arfasa, A.J.; Weldmeskel, F.M. Practices and challenges of guidance and counseling services in Secondary schools. Emerging Science Journal, 2020, 4, 183–191. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
16. Watts, A.G.; Van Esbrroeck, R. New skills for new futures: higher education guidance and counselling services in the European Union. VUBPress: Bruselas, Bélgica; 1997.
17. Grañeras Pastrana, M.; Parras Laguna, A. Orientación educativa: fundamentos teóricos, modelos institucionales y nuevas perspectivas. CIDE, Madrid, España, 2009; págs. 123-140.
18. Gasparyan, A.Y.; Ayvazyan, L.; Blackmore, H.; Kitas, G.D. Writing a narrative biomedical review: considerations for authors, peer reviewers and editors. Rheumatol. Int. 2011, 31, 1409–1417. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
19. Manterola, C.; Rivadeneira, J.; Delgado, H.; Sotelo, C.; Otzen, T. ¿Cuántos tipos de revisiones de la literatura existen? Enumeración, descripción y clasificación. Revisión cualitativa. International Journal of Morphology 2023, 41, 1240–1253. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
20. Barbosa Chacón, J.W.; Barbosa Herrera, J.C.; Rodríguez Villabona, M. Revisión y análisis documental para estado del arte: una propuesta metodológica desde el contexto de la sistematización de experiencias educativas. Investigación Bibliotecológica: Archivonomía, bibliotecología e información, 2013, 27, 83–105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
21. Bausela Herreras, E. Áreas, contextos y modelos de orientación en intervención psicopedagógica. Diálogos educativos, 2006, 12, 16–28, https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=2473883. [Google Scholar]
22. Rodríguez Diéguez, A. La búsqueda de un modelo integrado de Orientación. Revista electrónica de formación de profesorado en comunicación lingüística y literaria 2008, 24, 13–33. [Google Scholar]
23. Rodríguez Espinar, S.; Álvarez, M.; Echeverría, B.; Martín, M.A. Teoría y práctica de la Orientación Educativa. PPV, Madrid, España, 1993, págs.451-478.
24. Álvarez Rojo, V. Orientación educativa y acción Orientadora. EOS, Madrid, España, 1994, págs. 98-136.
25. Álvarez González, M. Orientación Profesional.; CEDECs, Madrid, España, 1995, págs. 154-178.
26. Jiménez, R.; Porras, R. Modelos de acción psicopedagógica entre el deseo y la realidad. Archidona, Sevilla, España 1997, págs. 45-69.
27. Bisquerra, R.; Álvarez González, M. Los modelos en orientación. Modelos de orientación e intervención psicopedagógica.; Mc Graw Hill, Madrid, España, 1998, 55–65.
28. Sampascual, G.; Navas, L.; Castejón, J.L. Funciones del orientador en primaria y secundaria.; Alianza, Madrid, España, 1999.
29. Sobrado, L.; Ocampo, O. Evaluación Psicopedagógica y orientación educativa.; Estel, Valencia, España, 2000.
30. Lázaro, A.J.; Mudarra, M.J. Análisis de los estilos de orientación en Equipos Psicopedagógicos. Contextos educativos: Revista de educación, 2000, 3, 253–280. [Google Scholar]
31. Sanz Oro, R. Evaluación de programas en orientación educativa.; Pirámide: Madrid, España, 2001; págs. 154-193. [Google Scholar]
32. Repetto, E. Modelos de orientación e intervención psicopedagógica. UNED: Madrid, España, 2002; págs. 104-133.
33. Martínez Clares, P. La orientación psicopedagógica: modelos y estrategias de intervención. EOS: Madrid, España, 2002; págs. 250-273.
34. Martínez González, M.D.C.; Téllez, J.A.; Quintanal, J. La orientación escolar: fundamentos y desarrollo. Dykinson: Madrid, España 2002; pp. 87-121.
35. Pantoja, A. La intervención psicopedagógica en la sociedad de la información. EOS Madrid, España, 2004; pp. 147-163.
36. Hervás Avilés, R.M. Orientación e intervención psicopedagógica y procesos de cambio. Grupo Editorial Universitaria: Madrid, España, 2006; págs. 286-312.
37. Repetto, E. Modelos de orientación e intervención psicopedagógica. UNED: Madrid, España, 2009; págs.163-187.
38. Bisquerra, R. Orígenes y desarrollo de la orientación psicopedagógica. Narcea: Madrid, España, 2011; págs.113-140.
39. Cano González, R. Orientación y tutoría con el alumnado y las familias. Biblioteca Nueva: Madrid, España, 2013; págs. 95-126.
40. González-Benito, A. Revisión teórica de los modelos de orientación educativa. RECIE. Revista Caribeña De Investigación Educativa 2018, 2, 43–60. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
41. Benavent, J.A.; Fossati, R. El modelo clínico y la entrevista. En Modelos de orientación e intervención psicopedagógica.; Benavent, J.A., Fossati, R., Eds.; EOS: Madrid, España, 1998; pp. 71–84. [Google Scholar]
42. Duff, C.T.; Bedi, R.P. Counsellor behaviours that predict therapeutic alliance: from the client’s perspective. Counselling psychology quarterly 2010, 23, 91–110. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
43. Collins, K.; Carthy, N. No Rapport, No Comment: The relationship between rapport and communication during investigative interviews with suspects. Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling 2018, 16, 18–31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
44. Gomez-Bedoya, M. Rapport in police interviews with victims: a linguistic comparison between UK and Spain. Journal of Criminal Psychology 2024, 15, 242–259. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
45. Jokiniemi, S.; Halinen, A.; Pullins, E.B.; Hosoi, K. Rapport building in B2B sales interactions: the process and explananda. Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management 2023, 44, 177–195. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
46. Moradi, F.; Enjezab, B.; Ghadiri-Anari, A.; Dehghani, A.; Vaziri, S. The effectiveness of Counseling Based on Acceptance and Commitment Therapy on Body Image and Self-Esteem in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome: An RCT. International Journal of Reproductive BioMedicine (IJRM) 2020, 18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
47. Zhang, J.; Zhang, W.; Zhou, Z. Intervention effect of research-based psychological counseling on adolescents’ mental health during the COVID-19 epidemic. Psychiatria Danubina 2021, 33, 209–216. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
48. Caplan, G. The theory and practice of mental health consultation. Basic Books:New York, EEUU, 1970, págs. 205-231.
49. Giorgi, G.; Arcangeli, G.; Alessio, F.; Mucci, N.; Lulli, L.G.; Bondanini, G.; Lecca, L.I.; Finstad, G.L. COVID-19-Related Mental Health Effects in the Workplace: A Narrative Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2020, 17, 7857. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
50. Fernández Rey, E. Teorías y modelos explicativos de la Orientación en Educación. En Orientación educativa. Nuevas perspectivas, Sobrado Fernández, L., Fernández Rey, E., and Rodicio García, L., Coords.; ). Biblioteca Nueva: Madrid, España, 2013; pp 43-62.
51. Bruner, J.S. Desarrollo educativo y educación. Morata: Madrid, España, 1988; pp. 204-219.
52. Durán Chacón, M.L. Diseño de una Propuesta Didáctica Basada en la Metodología del Curriculum en Espiral para el Desarrollo de la Competencia Comunicativa de los Estudiantes de Tercer Año de la Carrera de Medicina (Trabajo de Maestría). Universidad Industrial de Santander 2019.
53. Heras-Sevilla, D.; Ortega-Sánchez, D.; Rubia-Avi, M. Conceptualización y reflexión sobre el género y la diversidad sexual. Hacia un modelo coeducativo por y para la diversidad. Perfiles educativos 2021, 43, 148–165. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
54. Urruzola, M.J. Educación de las relaciones afectivas y sexuales, desde la filosofía coeducadora. Canal Editora Madrid, España, 1999.
55. Tremblay, M.; Currie, C.; Davidson, R.; Burkholder, C.; Morley, K.; Stillar, A.; Baydala, L.; Khan, M. Primary Substance Use Prevention Programs for Children and Youth: A Systematic Review. Pediatrics 2020, 146. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
56. Chua, J.Y.X.; Tam, W.; Shorey, S. Research Review: Effectiveness of universal eating disorder prevention in-terventions in improving body image among children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 2019, 61, 522–535. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
57. Faller, J.; Perez, J.K.; Mihalopoulos, C.; Chatterton, M.L.; Engel, L.; Lee, Y.Y.; Le, P.H.; Le, L.K.-D. . Economic evidence for prevention and treatment of eating disorders: An updated systematic review. The International Journal of Eating Disorders 2023, 57, 265–285. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
58. Barriuso-Ortega, S.; Fernández-Hawrylak, M.; Heras-Sevilla, D. Sex education in adolescence: A systematic review of programmes and meta-analysis. Children and Youth Services Review, 2024, 107926. [CrossRef]
59. He, J.; Wang, Y.; Du, Z.; Liao, J.; He, N.; Hao, Y. Peer education for HIV prevention among high-risk groups: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC infectious diseases, 2020, 20, 1–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
60. Morales, A.; Espada, J.P.; Orgilés, M.; Escribano, S.; Johnson, B.T.; Lightfoot, M. Interventions to reduce risk for sexually transmitted infections in adolescents: A meta-analysis of trials, 2008-2016. PloS one 2018, 13, e0199421. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
61. Rocha, A.C.; Silva, M.; Duarte, C. How is sexuality education for adolescents evaluated? A systematic review based on the Context, Input, Process and Product (CIPP) model. Sex Education 2022, 22, 198–216. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
62. Edwards, K.M.; Banyard, V.L.; Waterman, E.A.; Mitchell, K.J.; Jones, L.M.; Kollar, L.M.M.; Hopfauf, S.; Simon, B. Evaluating the Impact of a Youth-Led Sexual Violence Prevention Program: Youth Leadership Retreat Outcomes. Prevention Science, 2022, 23, 1379–1393. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
63. Graham, L.M.; Embry, V.; Young, B.-R.; Martin, S.L.; Macy, R.J.; Moracco, K.E.; Reyes, H.L.M. Evaluations of Prevention Programs for Sexual, Dating, and Intimate Partner Violence for Boys and Men: A Systematic Review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 2019, 22, 439–465. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
64. Marcos-Marcos, J.; Nardini, K.; Briones-Vozmediano, E.; Vives-Cases, C. Listening to stakeholders in the prevention of gender-based violence among young people in Spain: a qualitative study from the positivMasc project. BMC Women’s Health, 2023, 23, 293. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
65. Melendez-Torres, G.J.; Bonell, C.; Shaw, N.; Orr, N.; Chollet, A.; Rizzo, A.; Rigby, E.; Hagell, A.; Young, H.; Berry, V.; Humphreys, D.K.; Farmer, C. Are school-based interventions to prevent dating and relationship violence and gender-based violence equally effective for all students? Systematic review and equity analysis of moderation analyses in randomised trials. Preventive Medicine Reports, 2023, 34, 102277. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
66. Wong, J.S.; Bouchard, J.; Lee, C. The Effectiveness of College Dating Violence Prevention Programs: A Meta-Analysis. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 2021, 24, 684–701. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
67. Pantoja, A. El modelo tecnológico de intervención psicopedagógica. REOP-Revista Española de Orientación y Psicopedagogía, 2002, 13, 189–210. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
68. Requejo Fernández, E.; Raposo-Rivas, M.; Sarmiento Campos, J.A. El uso de tecnologías en la orientación profesional: Una revisión sistemática. REOP - Revista Española de Orientación y Psicopedagogía 2022, 33, 40–65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
69. Peng, R.; Halili, S.H.; Razak, R.A. Investigating the factors affecting ICT integration of in-service teachers in Henan Province, China: structural equation modeling. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 2023, 10, 380. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
70. Pineda-Martínez, M.; Llanos-Ruiz, D.; Puente-Torre, P.; García-Delgado, M.Á. Impact of video games, gamification, and game-based learning on sustainability education in higher education. Sustainability, 2023, 15, 13032. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
71. Fernández-Herrero, J. Evaluating Recent Advances in Affective Intelligent Tutoring Systems: A Scoping Review of Educational Impacts and Future Prospects. Education Sciences, 2024, 14, 839. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
72. Giovanetti, A.K.; Ilardi, S.S.; Punt, S.E.W.; Nelson, E.-L. Teletherapy Versus In-Person Psychotherapy for Depression: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Telemedicine and E-Health, 2022, 28, 1077–1089. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
73. Davis, K.A.; Zhao, F.; Janis, R.A.; Castonguay, L.G.; Hayes, J.A.; Scofield, B.E. Therapeutic alliance and clinical outcomes in teletherapy and in-person psychotherapy: A noninferiority study during the COVID-19 pandemic. Psychotherapy Research : Journal of the Society for Psychotherapy Research, 2023, 34, 589–600. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
74. Mark, T.L.; Tzeng, J.; Gilbert, M.; Henretty, K.; Padwa, H.; Treiman, K. Addiction Treatment and Telehealth: Review of Efficacy and Provider Insights During the COVID-19 Pandemic. Psychiatric Services, 2021, 73, 484–491. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]