Insecurity and it's Impact on Socio-Economic Development in Oyo State: A Study of Ibarapa North Local Government

1.0. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Insecurity issues in Nigeria can be traced back to the early years of military rule, which commenced in 1970. In the aftermath of the Nigerian Civil War, individuals resorted to purchasing weapons for self-defense, some of which were obtained by unscrupulous civilians. These firearms were utilized for crimes such as armed robbery and banditry by both these civilians and ex-military personnel shortly after the war. However, they also served as a means for jobless youth - some who had lost their jobs during the conflict - to engage in illicit activities.

To mitigate this security challenge in Oyo State, one of the government's initiatives was to establish security outfits like Amotekun that work closely with law enforcement agencies to reduce threats. The worsening security situation in Nigeria has resulted in an economic recession, increased living expenses, and created hardship for most citizens.

The study aims to evaluate and examine insecurity and its impact on socio-economic development in Oyo State. The objectives are:

(i)

Examine the causes of insecurity in Oyo State.

(ii)

(ii) Analyze the impact of insecurity on socio-economic development in Oyo State.

(iii)

Evaluate the roles of government in mitigating insecurity plaguing Oyo State.

2.0. LITERATURE REVIEW

Theoretical Framework

(i) Relative deprivation theory: Relative deprivation theory is a contemporary social science theory that links social segregation and poverty. This theoretical approach demonstrates how frustration, aggression, criminal activity, and violence are strongly associated with systemic failure or structural defects in a particular society. The construct of relative deprivation theory also highlights the predicament of skilled graduates who work as temporary employees for inadequate pay. When individuals with similar qualifications receive higher salaries and enjoy a better standard of living than they do, it can lead to feelings of frustration, aggression, and violent altercations. Some may resort to corruption, absenteeism, or vandalism as a means to express their grievances toward such organizations.

Moreover, Nigeria's unjust treatment of its citizens could be explained by the concept of relative deprivation theory. Typically when people are apprehended for crimes involving violent conflicts or other offenses, those from impoverished backgrounds are prosecuted while members from affluent classes are frequently released from prison or subjected to small fines. It illustrates how justice was meant to be an equalizer but has unexpectedly turned into an instrument favoring the rich over the poor – becoming hope for some while remaining an enemy for others.

The theory of relative deprivation also highlights the plight of skilled graduates who work as temporary employees for insufficient compensation. In cases where individuals with similar qualifications are paid more and enjoy a higher standard of living, frustration, aggression, and violent altercations can arise. Some may resort to corruption, absenteeism, or vandalism as a means of expressing their grievances against these organizations. The relative deprivation theory also offers some explanations for the prevalence of injustice and discrimination in Nigeria. When individuals are apprehended for violent conflicts or other criminal offenses, those from impoverished backgrounds are typically prosecuted while members of affluent classes often escape prison time or receive exorbitant fines. This demonstrates how justice--which is meant to be a beacon for all individuals--has unexpectedly become an ally to the wealthy but an enemy to the poor.

(ii). The Theory of Elite Insecurity: At its core, elite theory posits that society consists primarily of two social groups: "the rulers"and "the ruled."Despite being in the minority, the ruling class abuses its power by appropriating state resources at odds with the interests and needs of those they govern.

As per Pareto's (1963) theory, the elite class is distinguished by their subtlety and deceitfulness. Although the members of this group may change over time, its structure remains constant. Typically, new entrants are recruited from within the same territory as retiring or deceased members. However, when someone is brought in from outside the group, they must first be recommended by existing members and then follow a set of rules to maintain the group's dominance and influence.

The manipulation of power that has led to conflicts in both political and military regimes across Nigeria can be partially attributed to elite theory. The ruling class has gained unrestricted access to funds meant for national development through political maneuvering at the expense of ordinary citizens. Dysfunctional leadership evidenced by failures across institutions such as economic, educational, social control, and technological development among others have resulted in violent and nonviolent conflicts with detrimental effects on Nigeria as a whole.

Conceptual Framework

The Concept of Security: The notion of security encompasses a range of elements, including the attainment of a sense of safety and certainty, freedom from fear, anxiety, rage, doubt, and related emotions.

The Concept of Insecurity: The notion of insecurity refers to the condition of being exposed to danger or threat without adequate protection. According to Aghaulor (2020), insecurity, regardless of its historical, religious, ethnic, civil, or social roots, constitutes a breach of peace and security. This phenomenon is fueled by various economic, political, and environmental factors that perpetuate hostilities and lead to unnecessary loss of life and property. On the other hand, socio-economic development pertains to the process by which societies improve their well-being through economic growth coupled with social progress.

The Concept of Socio-economic Development

Social and economic factors are interconnected, forming the subject of socio-economic factors. The prefix "socio" pertains to the study of human behavior, including interactions among individuals or within family structures. On the other hand, "economic" refers to people's income and finances. Socio-economic theory delves into how social processes and economic activities interact within a community, as well as behaviors exhibited by specific social groups and socioeconomic classes like consumer behavior (Kirsten Schmitt, 1998).

Development is not solely an economic phenomenon but rather a multi-dimensional process that entails reorganizing and redirecting both the economy and social system. It involves improving all aspects of human lives with three equally important dimensions: (i) elevating people's standard of living through relevant growth processes such as increasing incomes, consumption levels, food security measures, medical care access, educational standards; (ii) fostering an environment that allows individuals to develop self-worth by instituting institutions that uphold respect for human dignity in various socio-political frameworks; (iii) expanding freedom of choice by influencing their scope of choices such as product ranges available (Todaro 2012).

Causes Leading to Insecurity in Oyo State Nigeria

There are several causes of insecurity in Oyo State, Nigeria. By understanding the leading causes, we can work towards finding effective solutions to address the Insecurities plaguing the state. Some of the leading causes include poor governance, corruption, and terrorism. Here is a sample of others:

1.

Economic factors: Economic factors such as high exchange rates, commodity prices, unemployment, poverty, poor remuneration, and Inequality in the distribution of resources in the state and Nigeria at large fuel insecurity as it affects the purchasing power of households and organizations, hence forces some people to turn to criminal activity to survive when they are unable to meet their basic needs.

2.

Political instability: Political instability is the term used to describe an uncertain and volatile political environment. Power struggles, frequent changes in leadership, and poor governance are some of the ways that Oyo state instability is expressed. These elements foster a climate that is conducive to violence and insecurity.

3.

Political, Ethnic, and Religious Group: Oyo State and Nigeria have a wide variety of ethnic and religious groups. Insecurity is exacerbated by disputes between these groups, a selfish political, religious, or ethnic leaders can take advantage of these distinctions for personal gain. Conflicts over land, resources, and political power often escalate into violence and insecurity.

4.

Defective Justice System: Inadequate policing and a defective justice system contributed to insecurity. Our laws are largely antiquated and outdated. hence the rule of law has been subverted into the rule of men due to the flaws in our legal systems. Some cabals are above the law in some places. They are not subject to arrest or legal action. Criminals are emboldened when they know they are unlikely to be caught or punished for their actions.

5.

Inadequate infrastructure: Oyo state lacks basic infrastructure, such as good roads, electricity, and access to clean water. This inadequate service delivery will not only affect the quality of life of its residents but also hampers economic development, making the state more susceptible to insecurity.

The Impact of Insecurity on Socio-Economic Development in Oyo State, Nigeria

Insecurity has a significant impact on the socio-economic development of Oyo State, Nigeria.

i)

Socio-economic Development: Socio-economic development is the process of improving the economic well-being and quality of life of the country, state, region, local community, or individual by specific goals and objectives. The existence of insecurity in the state deters investments and hinders economic growth. Insecure environments discourage businesses from starting or growing, which leaves the populace unemployed and with fewer employment opportunities.

ii)

Education and Religion Sector: Insecurity negatively affects the education and religion sectors. Schools and worship centers often become targets for attacks, leading to the closure of educational and religious institutions and interruptions of learning and communion. This therefore contributes to low literacy rates and a lack of morals and skill, affecting the overall human capital development in the state.

iii)

Limited Land for Agriculture: A large number of people are entering farming, livestock, and cattle breeding as a result of agricultural programs implemented by governmental and non-governmental organizations. Due to the increase in agriculture, farmers and herdsmen in Ibarapa North Local Government Area are competing with one another for limited land which resulted in conflict and insecurity in the state. Insecurity hampers agricultural productivity, which is a significant contributor to Oyo State's economy.

iv)

Loss of life and property: According to Gbaradi's (2018) timeline of the Fulani herdsmen in Oyo State, Nigeria, the herdsmen killed 3780 Nigerians in attacks across the nation, including those who were injured and kidnapped.

The Fulani herdsmen are reported to have started using firearms to kill farmers multiple times in their homes and farms in Ibarapa North, mainly in Igangan which has resulted in conflicts.

The problem arises when cattle graze on farmers' fields, and farmers attack herdsmen's cows in retaliation. This is done by the herdsmen because they greatly value the farmers' cows, and the attack and retaliation by farmers and herdsmen destroy lives and property and speed up the dissolution of the country. However, in retaliation for the cows' destruction of farms and farm products, farmers have killed dozens of cows and Fulani herdsmen, which has had a major negative impact on the socioeconomic advancement of the populace and the state as a whole.

v)

Shortage of Agricultural Product: A vital part of Oyo State's economy is agriculture, which is why agricultural productivity has been undermined. Insecurity disturbs agricultural operations in addition to endangering the lives of farmers. The difficulties faced by farmers include crop damage, theft, and land disputes, which lower output and cause a shortage of food. This further increases poverty and insecurity in the State.

vi)

Descrease Revenue: Oyo state has abundant natural resources and cultural heritage for tourism which promotes socio-economic development by generating revenue for the state and job opportunities for the masses. Insecurity discourages visitors which results in a decrease in revenue generation and loss of jobs for the people.

vii)

Disrupted Social Development: Insecurity weakens community trust and causes social cohesion to break down. People are less likely to participate in social activities when they feel unsafe, which weakens the bonds that bind communities together. The ensuing social disintegration threatens society's foundation and obstructs development as a whole.

The Role of Government in Mitigating Insecurity Plaguing the State

The government plays a crucial role in mitigating conflict and promoting peace and security in Oyo State by implementing various measures and policies. Some of the key roles of the government include:

• Job opportunities and Good Remuneration: Oyo state government must create job opportunities for its citizens and provide good remuneration for the working class to enable them to provide for their household. This would help raise the people's standard of living, promote socio-economic development, and reduce insecurity in the state.
• Entrepreneurship and Funding:In the absence of adequate job opportunities for hordes of young people without jobs. The government and private sector stakeholders must convene for a roundtable discussion to devise a strategic plan for advancing entrepreneurship and funding particularly for the youths now experiencing epidemic levels of unemployment and acute poverty.
• Civil Education: The government must invest heavily in civic education and facilitate platforms to enhance national and inter-religious dialogue. This could step up the capacity of citizens to transcend narrow religious prejudices and indoctrination to shape a better future through understanding, dialogue, reconciliation, and peacebuilding. In addition, people need to organize themselves at various levels and platforms to educate, expose, and speak out against insecurity.
• Promoting inclusive growth and governance: The government should ensure equality in the distribution of resources and that all racial and religious groups have equal representation and involvement in decision-making processes. This can foster a sense of ownership and belonging among the people and help alleviate feelings of marginalization. Programs and policies should also be in place to incorporate impoverished population groups and rural areas into the mainstream of development.
• Uphold Law and Order: Upholding law and order in the state is the responsibility of the government. In addition, it guarantees that the tools and training needed for law enforcement to resolve disputes and uphold the peace are provided to ensure impartiality in resolving disputes and averting vigilantism.
• Resolution of conflicts: The government can create a center for resolving disputes both at the state and grassroots level including mediation centers, peace committees, and conventional dispute resolution procedures. These forums can offer an impartial setting where parties with disputes can work out their differences.

Empirical Review

Peace, national cohesion, and long-term social and economic development all depend on security. Thus, it is clear that any nation's desire for national security is a prerequisite for its economic development (Oladeji and Folorunso, 2007).

The high level of national insecurity in Oyo state and Nigeria has led to increased criminal activity and terrorist attacks in various regions, with unfavorable outcomes for the country's social and economic advancement. Since the end of the Cold War, numerous attempts have been made to redefine security. The attempts to broaden and deepen the concept of security from the level of the state to society and the individual, and from military to non-military issues, are at the center of this debate (Ewetan and Uthie, 2014).

Williams (2008) states that the common association of security as an essential concept is the reduction of threats to valued values, particularly the survival of individuals, groups, or objects. The effects of insecurity have been felt widely throughout the world, especially in Nigeria. The majority of these effects can be traced to religious fanaticism or extremism, intolerance on the part of some followers of certain religions, political use of religion, and unemployment, among other factors. The political and fanatic use religion to cause trouble, destroy lives and property, and thereby increase poverty in the nation.

In a 2017 study, Adebisi, Azzeez, and Oyediji evaluated the Boko Haram insurgency's impact on Nigeria's agricultural sector. They employed time series data analysis research methods, analyzing secondary data before and during the insurgency with descriptive statistics and t-tests. Their research indicates that before the disruption caused by Boko Haram, agriculture contributed significantly to the GDP; however, during the insurgency, this contribution decreased. The study's conclusions lead it to recommend that the government pursue legitimate legal measures to address the root causes of insecurity and other banditry in the agricultural and other economic sectors and to support farmers, business owners, and women's multifaceted organizations.

3.0. METHODOLOGY

Nature and Sources of Data

The entire group of interest under investigation is the target population. It suggests the total number of respondents who are most likely to be contacted when the research study is being investigated. This research work focuses on insecurity and its impact on socio-economic development in Oyo State, Ibarapa North as a study.

For the research design, the description survey method was adopted by taking a sample from a population and generalizing the results to the whole population. The study will make use of both primary and secondary methods in the data collection process. Consultation and review of various literature will constitute the secondary method of data collection and administration; the questionnaire shall constitute the primary method.

The research instrument used in this study was an interview and questionnaire. 70 copies of the questionnaire were administered to some randomly selected dwellers of Ibarapa North Local Government Area, of Oyo State to solicit their responses as regards the research study.

Statistical Tools Applied in Data Analysis

The presentation data included findings, result and it was tested by hypothesis. The data were collected from the respondents through the questionnaire. The simple percentage was used for the analysis of the data in the complete questionnaire to know the relative strength of response to each of the items on the questionnaire. The data generated was converted into percentages and interpretation was stated. The hypotheses selected for this study were analyzed using Chi-square (X²).

Chi-Square: This was adopted in testing the hypothesis formulated. The Chi-Square Formula is stated below:

X² =€ (Of - Ef)

Ef

Where x² =Chi - Square

Of = Observed frequency

Ef = Expected frequency

€= Summation (Addicts on sign)

Design Rule

If the calculated value is less than the critical value, accept H_o, otherwise, reject H₁.

If the calculated value is greater than the critical value, reject H_o.

4.0. ANALYSIS AND TEST HYPOTHESES

Technique of Analysis: Analysis of Chi-square (X²)

The presentation and analysis of the data obtained in the field were conducted at Ibarapa North Local Government Area of Oyo State. A total number of 70 copies of questionnaires were self-administered to respondents, the questionnaires were filled, and 66 copies were retrieved. The outcome of the fieldwork is presented in statistical analysis. The questionnaire responses of the sample respondents were presented using tables while formulated hypotheses were tested using the analysis Chi-square technique.

Test of Hypotheses

(A)

Testing of Hypotheses one

H₀: Unemployment is not one of the causes of insecurity in Oyo State.

H_I: Unemployment is one of the causes of insecurity in Oyo State.

Option	Fo	Fe	Fo –Fe	(Fo –Fe)2	(Fo –Fe)2 Fe
Strongly agree	2	16.5	-14.5	210.25	12.74
Agree	1	16.5	-15.5	240.25	14.56
Disagree	20	16.5	3.5	12.25	0.74
Strongly disagree	43	16.5	26.5	702.25	42.56
Total	66	66			70.6

Source: Author’s Compilation, 2022

X² calculated = 70.6

Degree of Freedom = n -1🡒4 -1 = 3

Level of significance = 0.05

X² tabulated = 7.82

Decision Rule: Reject Ho: If X² is greater than X² tabulated, otherwise do not reject.

Decision:

Since X² calculated value 70.6 is greater than X² tabulated 7.82; then the H_o is rejected. It is therefore concluded that unemployment is one of the causes of insecurity.

(B)

Testing of Hypotheses two

H_o: Insecurity has negatively affected commerce and trade in Oyo State

H₁: Insecurity has positively affected commerce and trade in Oyo State.

Option	Fo	Fe	Fo –Fe	(Fo –Fe)2	(Fo –Fe)2 Fe
Strongly agree	20	16.5	3.5	12.25	0.74
Agree	21	16.5	4.5	20.25	1.23
Disagree	13	16.5	-3.5	12.25	0.74
Strongly disagree	12	16.5	-4.5	20.25	1.23
Total	66	66			3.94

Source: Author’s Compilation, 2022

X² Calculated = 3.94

Degree of Freedom = n -1🡒4 -1 = 3

Level of significance = 0.05

X² tabulated = 7.82 (having checked X² tab at the level of significance with the degree of freedom of 1).

Decision Rule: Reject H_o; if X² calculated is greater than X² tabulated otherwise reject.

Decision:

Since X² calculated value is 3.94 less than X² tabulated 7.82, then H_o is accepted. It is therefore concluded that insecurity has negatively affected commerce and trade in Oyo State.

(C)

Testing of Hypotheses three

H_o: The establishment of the Amotekun security outfit has not contributed to the minimization of insecurity in Oyo State.

H₁: The establishment of the Amotekun security outfit has contributed to the minimization of insecurity in Oyo State.

Option	Fo	Fe	Fo –Fe	(Fo –Fe)2	(Fo –Fe)2 Fe
Strongly agree	25	16.5	8.5	72.25	4.38
Agree	31	16.5	14.5	210.25	12.74
Disagree	6	16.5	-10.5	110.25	6.68
Strongly disagree	4	16.5	-12.5	156.25	9.47
Total	66	66			33.27

Source: Author’s Compilation, 2022

X² Calculated = 33.27

Degree of Freedom = n – 1🡒4 – 1 =3

Level of significance = 0.05

X² tabulated = 7.82 (having checked X² tab at the level of significance with the degree of freedom of 1).

Decision Rule: Reject H_o; if X² calculated is greater than X² tabulated otherwise reject.

Decision:

Since X² calculated value is 33.27 is greater than the X² tabulated 7.82, H_o is rejected. It is therefore concluded that the establishment of the Amotekun security outfit has contributed to the minimization of insecurity in Oyo State.

5.0. FINDINGS

The research examines the impact of insecurity on socio-economic development in Oyo state with a focus on the Ibarapa North Local Government Area (Igangan). According to the research, Ibarapa North's and the state's socioeconomic development have suffered as a result of insecurity. It has led to a rise in the state's unemployment rate and the closure of numerous businesses, wreaking havoc across the country on poverty and hunger.

An analysis of the data showed that 62% of respondents, or the majority, believed that poverty, unemployment, and unequal resource distribution contributed more to insecurity and, in turn, severely hindered socioeconomic development and decreased people's standard of living and posing a threat to human lives and property. The results of this investigation broadly concur with those of the empirical literature that was examined for this study.