Version 1
: Received: 14 August 2023 / Approved: 14 August 2023 / Online: 15 August 2023 (12:42:29 CEST)
How to cite:
Balzanelli, M.G.; Distratis, P.; Lazzaro, R.; Dipalma, G.; Inchingolo, F.; Del Prete, R.; Hung Pham, V.; Aityan, S.K.; Nguyen, K.C.; Isacco Gargiulo, C. The Long Covid-19 Syndrome the Spike Protein and Stem Cells, the Underrated Role of Retrotransposons, a Working Hypothesis. Preprints2023, 2023081130. https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202308.1130.v1
Balzanelli, M.G.; Distratis, P.; Lazzaro, R.; Dipalma, G.; Inchingolo, F.; Del Prete, R.; Hung Pham, V.; Aityan, S.K.; Nguyen, K.C.; Isacco Gargiulo, C. The Long Covid-19 Syndrome the Spike Protein and Stem Cells, the Underrated Role of Retrotransposons, a Working Hypothesis. Preprints 2023, 2023081130. https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202308.1130.v1
Balzanelli, M.G.; Distratis, P.; Lazzaro, R.; Dipalma, G.; Inchingolo, F.; Del Prete, R.; Hung Pham, V.; Aityan, S.K.; Nguyen, K.C.; Isacco Gargiulo, C. The Long Covid-19 Syndrome the Spike Protein and Stem Cells, the Underrated Role of Retrotransposons, a Working Hypothesis. Preprints2023, 2023081130. https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202308.1130.v1
APA Style
Balzanelli, M.G., Distratis, P., Lazzaro, R., Dipalma, G., Inchingolo, F., Del Prete, R., Hung Pham, V., Aityan, S.K., Nguyen, K.C., & Isacco Gargiulo, C. (2023). The Long Covid-19 Syndrome the Spike Protein and Stem Cells, the Underrated Role of Retrotransposons, a Working Hypothesis. Preprints. https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202308.1130.v1
Chicago/Turabian Style
Balzanelli, M.G., Kieu C.D. Nguyen and Ciro Isacco Gargiulo. 2023 "The Long Covid-19 Syndrome the Spike Protein and Stem Cells, the Underrated Role of Retrotransposons, a Working Hypothesis" Preprints. https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202308.1130.v1
Abstract
Coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) was seen as a respiratory disease, however, an increasing number of reports indicated that the spike protein could also be the cause of the long-term post-infectious conditions known as Long-COVID characterized by a group of unresponsive idiopathic severe neuro, cardio-vascular disorders, including strokes, cardiopathies, neuralgias, fibromyalgia, and Parkinson's like-disease. Different lines of pieces of evidence confirmed that the spike protein that can be found on the surface of the SARS-CoV-2 virus latches onto angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptors located on target cells. The RNA genome of coronaviruses, which, has a median length of 29 kb and is the longest among all RNA viruses, is comprised of six to ten open reading frames (ORFs) that are responsible for encoding both the replicase and structural proteins for the virus. Each of the components of the viral genome is packaged into a helical nucleocapsid that is surrounded by a lipid bilayer. The viral envelope of coronaviruses is typically made up of three proteins that include the membrane protein (M), the envelope protein (E), and the spike protein (S). The spike protein not only facilitates the virus entry into healthy cells, which is the first step in infection but also promote profound damage to different organs and tissues leading to severe impairments and long-term disabilities. Here, we discussed the pervasive mechanism that spikes mRNA adopted to alter multipotent and pluripotent stem cell (SCs) genomes and the acquired disability of generating an infinite number of affected clonal cells. This stance is based on the molecular and evolutionary aspects obtained from retrotransposons-retrotransposition in mammalians and humans that documented the frequent integration of mRNA molecules into genomes and thus into DNA. Retrotransposition is the molecular process in which transcribed and spliced mRNAs are accidentally reverse-transcribed and inserted into new genomic positions to form a retrogene. Sequence-specific traits of mRNA clearly showed long interspersed element-1 (LINE-1 or L1) to confirm the retrotransposition, considered the most abundant autonomously active retrotransposons in the human genome. In mammals, L1 retrotransposons drive retrotransposition and are composed of long terminal repeats (LTRs) and non-LTR retrotransposons (mainly long interspersed nuclear elements or LINEs); specifically, the LTR-mediated retrocopies are immediately cotranscribed with their flanking LTR retrotransposons. In response to retrotransposons transposition, stem cells (SCs) employ a number of silencing mechanisms, such as DNA methylation and histone modification. This manuscript theorizes the expression patterns, functions, and regulation of mRNA Spike protein imprinted by SCs retrotransposons which generate unlimited lines of affected cell progenies and tissues as the main condition of untreatable Spike-related inflammatory conditions.
Copyright:
This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
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