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Enigma of Pyramidal Neurons: Congruence to Molecular, Cellular, Physiological, Cognitive and Psychological Function

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20 June 2023

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27 June 2023

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Abstract
In bilaterians organism, the signaling of pyramidal neurons (PyrNs) is linked to the relative (prevalent) molecular chirality and physiological, perceptual, cognitive, and psychological functions and dysfunctions, providing the coupling of the central nervous system downstream and upstream evolutionary and developmental processes. The most apparent and discriminating morphological specificity of PyrNs is the geometry of the cell body. However, the question "why/how PyrNs soma gains the shape of quasi-tetrahedral symmetry" has never been explicitly articulated. If the basic function of PyrNs is sensory space perception, supporting the orientation, and movement coordination, then the pyramidal shape of soma is the best evolutionary-selected geometry to perform sensory-motor coupling. In biology, the impact of chiral symmetry (handedness) is evident at all levels of biological organization, from the prevalent symmetry of biological molecules to the morphology and function of bilateral organisms. How the tetrahedral symmetry of biomolecules is linked to the morphology and functions of bilateral organisms remains a challenging question. Cell chirality represents an intermediate point connecting two poles of biochirality. In this holistic perspective, examining the PyrNs' morphology-circuitry-function link is crucial to understanding the complex interaction between genetic, epigenetic, and environmental factors in the evolution of the CNS. The predictive power of our hypothesis can be partially expressed by the statement that the most integral and reliable biomarker of the neurodegenerative (including aging) and mental (including all variants of psychiatric illness) disorders would be the detection of the hemispheric asymmetry of D-amino acids (D-AAs) level in pyramidal neurons (PyrNs).
Keywords: 
prevalent molecular chirality
;  
bilaterality
;  
pyramidal neuron
;  
evolution
Subject: 
Biology and Life Sciences  -   Cell and Developmental Biology

Introduction

Space-time symmetry and relativity are indispensable forms of existence, which can neither be created nor destroyed, but only transformed.
The association of biological processes with mental health and illness points to the reciprocal relations between two o opposite poles of the biological hierarchy, molecular biology and the phenomenon of the conscious mind. Biological psychology (biopsychology, psychobiology, psychophysiology, neuropsychobiology) and biological psychiatry represent the branches of science dealing with this fundamental link. The molecular and cell physiology of pyramidal neurons (PyrNs) provides a natural bridge between molecular biology and the appearance of human thoughts.
At the cellular level, biological processes within CNS are grounded in the physiology and function of PyrNs [1]. In biology, many legitimate questions still need appropriate answers. But some questions have not been ever expressed. One such inquiry is why/how PyrN, implicated in the spatial navigation of bilaterians, gain quasi tetrahedral symmetry of soma presumably associated with the geometry of chiral carbon atoms and tetrahedral structure of water (Figure 1) [2,3,4,5,6]. The question should be resolved based on the understanding of the evolution of CNS (Figure 1) [7]. Unfortunately, the geometrical definition of soma shape was not explicitly clarified. Consequently, whether the pyramidal shape of soma was evolutionarily selected, or the current state is “an appendix of the CNS” has never been debated. Tetrahedral (sp3-hybridized) carbons with four different substituents are the principal components of biological molecules exhibiting homochirality. Evolutionary selected biochemical homochirality is based on the chiral stereoselectivity of biosynthetic and metabolic reactions [8,9]. Chirality is the right keyword in the search for the integrity of PyrNs origin, structure, and functions. Such an assumption agrees that chiral asymmetry appears in nature at all levels, from elementary particles and amino acids to mammals’ morphology and even galaxies’ levels [10,11,12]. The origin of chirality at the cellular level is attributed to biomolecular homochirality [12]. Molecular homochirality and cellular chirality are the internal “forces” driving an organism’s left–right asymmetric development [13,14] in bilaterians.
The hierarchical chain of chirality transfer from the atomic to the organism level is one of the challenging targets of contemporary biological sciences [15,16,17]. The attention to the possible all-embracing role of the symmetry determinant in biology (from the biomolecular chirality to the bilaterality of human cognitive function) has become a significant trend in cognitive neuroscience [12,18,19,20]. However, surprisingly, in this chirality-oriented stream of biological research, the question “why/how does PyrNs gain tetrahedral geometry?” remains unarticulated. Below, we introduce some relevant hypotheses based on the generalized view of biological symmetry. A broad view of biological symmetry assumes that chirality transfer from the molecular to macromolecular and cellular levels plays a vital role in physiology underlying perceptual and cognitive functions linked with bilateral organisms’ emotional and behavioral expression (Figure 2) [11,12,21,22]. The cellular and molecular mechanisms of psychological states are fast-developing branches of life science. From the time of Freud, Jung, and Assagioli, perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral functions have been considered the essential determinants of psychological processes [23,24,25]. Regardless of the view on the relationship between psychology’s cognitive and behavioral domains, it is a commonly agreed that both exhibit a hierarchy, with the bottom referencing the basic sensory and perceptual processes and the top referencing the higher levels of cognitive and executive functioning control. From the top view, the hierarchical structure is the chain of downstream processes, including motor functions, perceptual abilities, neuronal circuits, and underlying molecular biology. Interpreting sensory perception and motor functions within cellular and molecular biology relies significantly on the laws of space-time symmetry [12,26,27,28,29]. Following this logic, the shape and functions of PyrNs deserve specific attention.

Molecular Chirality

The notion of chirality (i.e., symmetry) is closely related to the concept of space. Following the intuitive view of Euclid and Galilei. Newton concluded that the external to the observer space is infinite, isotropic, uniform, perfectly penetrable, and immovable, where he located the relative motion and studied its variation [30,31]. The frequently discussed mystery of biological chirality [32] arose from the combination of intuitive illusions. Most essential is the assumption regarding the existence of the racemic prebiotic world and the premise of the absolute isotropic and homogenous continuum of space. The false assumptions inevitably lead to the wrong unsolvable question. The collective labor of modern scientific society delivers evidence that space-time symmetry and relativity (STSR) are the fundamental properties of nature [17] and primary determinants of life [12,33]. The advances in quantum mechanics and group theory confirm the long-time-repining intuitive assumption, influencing the minds of the greatest scientists from Gailey to Dirac, that the principle of invariance (i.e., symmetry) is “analogous” to the relativity principle [34]. It has become a guiding idea in modern physical [35,36,37] and biological sciences [12,38,39]. Narrowing attention to the spatial symmetry at the molecular level, we can state that majority of biological molecules (such as amino acids and sugars) and macromolecules (including DNA, RNA, proteins, and lipids) exhibit the prevalent form of spatial symmetry in three domains of geometry: chirality, fractality, and topology [40,41,42,43,44]. We will be focused on the effects of molecular chirality represented by two classes of stereo-isomers: chiral enantiomers (prevalent L-isoform) and achiral diastereomers (prevalent cis-stereo-form) (Figure 3). The range of chirality-specific phase-transitions at the molecular level include chiral inversion and spontaneous chiral symmetry breaking in diverse states of aggregation. The most studied biological molecules implicated in the effects of chirality are amino acids (AAs) and enzyme-substrate protein complexes in the CNS [45,46,47,48]. The prevalent molecular chirality of organisms at the protein level occurs through the fine-balanced interaction of L-(major) and D-(minor) isoforms. Up-regulation of D-AAs is implicated in organism aging [47,49], psychiatric disorders [50], and cancers [51,52]. The most known adverse impacts are attributed to the up-regulation of three AAs: D-aspartic acid, D-serine, and D-alanine. All of them (and, potentially, by D-glutamate) are agonists for NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartate) receptors of PyrNs [53,54,55,56,57,58]. Notably, continuous spontaneous and induced assembly of homochiral proteins from simple to complex arrangements includes the tetrahedral complexes [59] (well- known in the hemoglobin conformational dynamics) [60,61].

Link of Physiological and Psychological Functions

The central point of association between brain physiology and psychology is the function of PyrNs, providing an opportunity to basis of sensory processes (including visual, auditory, gustatory, olfactory, and cutaneous systems) to participate in the higher cognitive functions (such as emotion, learning, and memory) [62,63]. This functional opportunity is based on the interaction of sub-populations of PyrNs observed in low-level sensory cortices including, primary somatosensory, visual, and auditory cortex, with PyrNs located in high-level areas such as the prefrontal cortex (PFC). Such a conceptual view allows us to trace a link between chirality-dependent molecular events in PyrNs and their role in perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral aspects of psychological functions (PFs) Object perception or object recognition is the process of meaningful interpretation of the sensory input underlying our ability to act in the world. Psychophysical and physiological evidence suggests that object recognition relay on perceptual constancy, referring to the fact conservation of perceived geometrical characteristics of objects during relative motion of subject and object. Perceptual constancy is the invariance of injects under spatial transformations and is closely associated with the mathematical definition of symmetries. Therefore, it is not accidental that CNS of bilateral animals possess the specific neuronal mechanism of symmetry/dissymmetry perception [64,65,66]. Prevalent molecular chirality plays pivotal role in human physiology. It can be illustrated by the regulation of intra-body dynamics of D-amino acids (D-AAs). It is well known that D-serine is involved in bio-chemical interaction of main organs of the body, including kidneys, liver, gut, urine, stomal, lung, and brain [7,9,67]. The dependence of CNS on D-AAs metabolism allows us to trace the interplay between physiology and complex of perceptual, cognitive, and psychological functioning [21].
Analyzing the types of personalities, Jung differentiated them based on the complex cognitive functions, including thinking, filing, sensation, intuition, and aesthetical judgment [23]. This approach assumes significant overlapping between concepts of cognitive and psychological functions, with the last one covering the areas of emotions and behavior [24,68,69,70,71]. The expressions psychological functions (PFs), faculties, abilities, agents, states, conditions, and types are widely used in psychological sciences and to a lesser degree, in clinical practice.

Bilateral Organism: Symmetry-Function Interplay

The conjunction of cognitive and psychological functions allows projecting all aspect of molecular biology and space-perception of bilateral organism on the area of psychology and psychopathology [71,72]. Such a view brings us to the understanding that the bilateral CNS of humans unavoidably exhibits bilateral patterns of physiological, cognitive, emotional, and behavioral functions underlying the psychological state of individuals (in health and disease conditions). It means that every individual has a window for the spontaneous and intended inputs influencing the state of bilateral CNS. This is practically exploited in bilateral/unilateral activation of the sensory system and corresponding cognitive functions in the healing of post-traumatic stress disorders [73] and mediating fear conditions [74]. The symmetry in biology is extended to the balanced arrangement of body parts around the 3-D axis. The Bilateria or bilaterians are animals revealing bilateral symmetry (chirality) from the embryonic state. Neuroimaging studies reveal hemispheric asymmetry of association and limbic fiber tracts in utero [75,76]. The body plan of Bilateria has right and left sides that are mirror images of each other. Evolutionary origin of biochirality points to several major contributing factors. Three of them, relevant to the topic of our discussion, are prevalent molecular chirality, the necessity of space-time orientation of moving body with the possibility to distinguish left and right (we point to the left/right because it is related to a left-right mirror symmetry at the molecular level), a sensory system capable of space-time localization of objects representing food or social partner. According to fossil evidence, bilateral body symmetry in animals took place about 500 million years ago. In the course of evolution, bilateral bogy inevitably leads to bilateral CNS. This fact convinces many scientists that the laterality of brain functions cannot be accidental [77]. Symmetry in CNS is the balanced and co-related spatial arrangement of molecular, cellular, and anatomical components providing the opportunity for the laterality of cognitive functions. The laterality of cognitive functions experiences the “symmetry pressure” from two sides: from the internal determinants and behavioral-environmental determinants. One is strongly associated with the genetic mechanism, and another evidently with epigenetic factors [78]. Epigenetics represents the network of molecular interfaces mediating gene-environmental interactions [79]. In the language of symmetry, any epigenetic mechanism is the factor (symmetry changing factor) breaking genetically imposed homochirality of ribosomal protein synthesis [80]. Exploring human brain lateralization with attention to molecular chirality [21], cell chirality [81], genetics and non-genetic factors in association with the underlying physical laws concerning space-time symmetry confirms that the origin of relative chiral homogeneity of biological molecules is somehow connected to the origin and evolution of life [10,19,81]. For moving bilateral organisms, persistent asymmetry in the activation of the sensory system (as the vision in the birds) becomes the environmental factor of the development of perception, cognition, and action, and, consequently, the object of intuitive attraction (attention). In humans, this attraction takes various shapes, from pragmatic skills of spatial orientation to aesthetic feeling. At the cellular level molecular chirality is known as the factor promoting neuronal proliferation [82]. Space-time perception is the most influential force driving the direction of individual organism development and the directionality of biological evolution [10,83]. Both ontogeny and phylogeny can be traced at the molecular, cellular and organism levels. In the case of humans, the interplay of prevalent molecular chirality and the sensory-motor functions is what drives evolution. Hence, the sensory-motor system’s mechanism supports higher cognitive abilities, consciousness, and psychological state. The human brain is the integrative bilaterally asymmetric machinery of space-time perception of moving organisms accompanied by executive function. In the CNS, the link of molecular chirality to the organism’s function at the cell level is mediated by multiple subtypes of neurons with unique morphologies, electrical properties, and molecular identities [84].

Pyramidal Neurons

PyrNs gain their name due to the easily recognizable geometrical shape of the soma. PyrNs soma shape is sharply distinct from other neuronal (Purkinje and granular cells) and non-neuronal (microglia, astrocytes, epithelial, or red blood cell) cell types. Based on this fact, it is reasonable to assume that the specificity of PNs functions accounts for this difference. The term PyrNs refers to all major classes of excitatory multipolar glutamatergic cell types sharing common (pyramidal-like) soma shape despite the different degree of deviation from the perfect geometrical form [85]. The detailed description of the PyrNs’ soma shape is rare and usually characterized as a “teardrop or rounded pyramid” [86], extremely elongated rod-shaped” [87], and mst frequently pyramid-shaped [88]. The base geometry of the pyramid (triangular or square) is never experimentally characterized or theoretically predicted. In such a situation, it is relevant to say that PyrNs soma has relative similarity with the pyramid’s geometry in general or tetrahedron, in particular. The possibility of a tetrahedral shape can be considered an evolutionary tendency partially deviated by impacts of the factors secondary to the sensory perception of the spatial environment. The genetic architecture of the structural left-right asymmetry of the bilateral human brain is evolutionary preserved for the optimum function of sensory perception [89]. At the cellular level, space-time perception occurs through the activity of PurNs. The functions of PyrNs includes the evaluation of the distance, direction, and left-right discrimination of movement. In agreement with this view, the spatial arrangement of the PyrNs firing was found to be affected by environmental geometry [90]. Notable, that the aging-related cognitive deficits are attributable to reduced activity of pyramidal neurons [91]. Left–Right discrimination of brain functions is well represented in the behavioral study [92,93]. This knowledge is supported by new results showing brain asymmetry at the molecular and cellular levels. but not sufficiently explores at the molecular and cellular levels. PyrNs are the primary excitatory multipolar cell type abundant in the brain cortex [94], hippocampus [95,96], and amygdala [97]. The heterogeneity of the PyrN family is defined by their distinct axonal projections, dendritic arborization, and types of receptors. The cortical circuit network predominantly comprises pyramidal-to-pyramidal neuron connections, yet their assembly during embryonic development has yet to be entirely understood. PyrNs of cortex are distributed in the sensory, motor, association, and executive areas and found in all cortical layers except layer I [1,98,99]. Each PyrN receives input from thousands of excitatory synapses segregated onto dendritic branches. It has been previously proposed that sophisticated neuronal circuits associated with non-linear properties of dendrites enable cortical neurons to recognize multiple independent patterns and robust sequence memory [100]. Dysfunctional PyrN circuitry has been associated with abnormalities of perception, cognition, and psychological condition. PyrN utilize as neurotransmitters amino acids L-glutamate [101] and D-serine [102]. The most significant contribution to the morphological asymmetry of brain hemispheres and left-right differentiation of neural pathways is attributed to PyrN. The fact that PyrN are the most populated neuronal type in the human cerebral cortex and hippocampus suggests their primary role in processing space-time information utilized in sensory-motor functions. PyrN signaling is necessary for normal development and essential functions of mature organisms [103]. While the distortion of neuronal geometry and formation of aberrant synapses are associated with pathological conditions [104], including impairment of visual perception [105] and mental retardation [106]. The bilateral cortex and hippocampus, containing the majority of PyrN, are studied in brain regions involved in a wide range of hemisphere-specific functions, including spatial coding, navigation, spatial memory, decision-making [107,108,109], and intelligence [110]. The evolutionary selected system for space-time information processing, including the morphology and spatial orientation of PyrN, is the fundamental feature underlying the function of CNS. Experimentally observed hemispheric asymmetry of synaptic morphology of Pyr Ns explains well-known functional laterality of human perceptual and cognitive functions [111,112,113,114,115].
The morphology of PyrNs concerning the function was the focus of long-term attention in neuroscience. The major studied structural features were dendritic arborization, synaptic connectivity, and axonal network [84,114,115,116]. Apical and basal segments of the dendritic tree, complemented by the relative orientation of presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons, were carefully studied [5,6,94,116,117,118,119,120,121,122]. Two dendritic arbors have distinct morphology, orientation and are involved in different synaptic circuits [94]. The dendritic orientation of PyrN is sublayer specific and exhibits dorsal-verbal and front-back differentiation [123]. The experimental parameters characterizing the cell body include soma size, spatial distributions, the density of soma, and pyramidal somatic integrative zones. The shape and spatial orientation of pyramidal soma has little attention, partly due to the void of reliable experimental control.
In bilateral organisms, beginning from C elegans, CNS contains PyrNs. During neurogenesis from the ventricular zone (VZ), before adopting pyramidal morphology, neurons pass through several intermediate stages (multipolar, bipolar) [124,125].
Presumably, many molecular correlates contribute to the pyramidal shape of soma, but all cell morphology alterations are supported/assisted by the molecular dynamics of homochiral enzyme-substrate complexes. A commonly accepted axiom is that molecular chirality drives cell chirality [126]. Experimental evidence suggests that such a chirality transfer occurs with the participation of diverse cytoskeleton-based long-lived structures. Indeed, it was shown that the interaction of the diverse family of cytoskeleton filaments (septin [127], actin [128,129], microtubules [130,131], and that neurofilaments (NF) [132] provides fundamental cell morphogenetic mechanisms, including the shape and spatial orientation of PyrNs soma [129]. It was shown that neurofilaments (NF), and other intermediate-filament proteins contain motifs in their N-terminal domains that bind unassembled tubulin. Peptides containing such motifs inhibit microtubules’ in vitro polymerization, leading to altered cell shapes [133]. This fact suggests that NF-microtubules interaction can contribute to the shape of pyramidal neuron soma. The homochirality of actin-myosin cytoskeletons allows the cells to develop polarity and left-right asymmetry [126]. However, the bidirectional impact of prevalent molecular chirality (internal determinant) and bilaterality of CNS (window to the external epigenetic factors) on the pyramidality of PyrNs soma has never been considered.
Notable that dendritic arborization exhibits cortical layer-dependent orientation preference towards the anterior orientation [120]. However, the spatial orientation of pyramidal soma in two brain hemispheres and their relation to space-time information processing have yet to be experimentally studied or theoretically discussed. Based on the lateralization of perceptual and cognitive functions, we can expect differential bilateral asymmetry in the morphology and orientation of PyrN. Indeed, currently, the hemispheric difference is experimentally observed in the number/volume [134] and synaptic organization [135]. Asymmetric hemispheric allocation of NMDA receptor subunits in hippocampal PyrN complements the whole picture [95,96]. The fact that PyrNs of the healthy human brain have a significantly greater density, larger size, and are more spherical in shape on the left- than on the right-side point to the meaningful link between two kinds of biological events [136]. Notable that bilateral asymmetry of brain activity indicates a state of the CNS system concerning mood and anxiety. For example, studies of brain EEG associated with PyrNs firing suggest that high levels of beta in the right hemisphere are associated with anxiety symptoms. In contrast, high levels of alpha in the left hemisphere indicate depressive features [136,137,138].

Conclusion

Our hypothesis brings highlights several formal consequences of two co-existent events: PyNs’ shape and bilateral localization [139]. Indeed, episodic memory, allowing mental navigation in space and time, is based on the hemisphere-asymmetrical activity of hippocampal PyrNs [108] At the same time, from a geometrical standpoint, PyN soma (with four non-equivalent vertexes) represents a highly asymmetric (chiral) tetragonal structure. The anatomical symmetry and asymmetry of the PyrN structure imposes fundamental information processing capabilities. The essential point is that two mirror images of pyramidal neurons (two seemingly identical PyrNs) are not superimposable (i.e., not identical). Furthermore, the chirality of PyrN provides a formal opportunity for hemisphere-specific information processing. Organic and non-organic molecular nano-scale complexes can spontaneously adopt various shapes, including square-pyramidal [140], triangular-prism [141,142], octahedral, icosahedral., and tetrahedral [143,144] geometry. The stability of such DNA, proteins, and lipids higher-order nano-scale structures [145,146] suggests the existence of molecular contribution to the shape of PyrNs. Notably, the common symmetry principles guide the external and internal determinants of cell morphology, assembly, and functions of intracellular molecules. Protein aggregate adopting tetrahedral symmetry creates shell-like architectures [147]. Such structures serve as enclosures for viral genomes or as internal determinants of cell shape. Another well-known example of tetrahedral protein assembly is globular hemoglobin (Hb) [148,149] (Hb is a highly conserved globular protein in all life forms and functionally tied to aerobic organisms utilizing oxygen from the atmosphere and delivering it to cells. The expression of mitochondrial hemoglobin (Hba-a2 and Hbb) in neurons (including nigral dopaminergic neurons, striatal γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA-ergic neurons, and cortical pyramidal neurons) was experimentally observed [150,151,152]). Presumably, the shape of the soma can adapt the demands of the cytoskeleton’s tetrahedral mesh-like gel, undergoing a chain of structural phase transitions [144,153,154]. However, additional experimental verification of such pathways is required. The co-appearance of all the above-mentioned spatial arrangements of PyrNs in the visual cortex suggests that the corresponding primary function is the involvement in the space-time orientation of moving organisms. In neuronal cells, the assembly of cytoskeleton proteins can be considered an internal determinant of soma’s shape.
The mystery is almost solved, and what remains now is the need for complex, goal oriented experimental evidence, including illuminating the link between molecular chirality (such as of L/D-actin cytoskeleton dynamics in dendritic spines or chirality of mGluR7 receptors/ligands complex) and the shape of PyrNs. We have introduced you to the spectrum of seemingly unrelated facts and thoughts, the fundamental link of which is currently hidden from the broad research audience. Now it is time for your own judgment regarding the hypothesis on the consideration and for a new experimental design.
The evolution of bilaterian CNS occurs through the differentiation of cell types and network organization. A line of phylogenomic evidence suggests that some organisms (such as sponges and placozoans) may benefit from the loss and/or modification of their neural cell types. But the mainstream of evolution demonstrates the benefit of the CNS for managing voluntary movement (events in the space-time domain). At the cellular level, the origin of CNS is characterized by the appearance of pyramidal neurons (PyrNs). Learning the congruence of the molecular and cellular events helps to understand the link between voluntary movement, space perception CNS, and PyrNs morphology.
Biologists have made long-term efforts to explain the common origin of the homochiral worth of DNA code and protein sequence resulting in the emergence of the human mind. Quite unexpectedly, for many scientists, it was realized that the Ariadne thread is the concept of symmetry [11,12]. On the other hand, all theories ignoring the symmetry principle occurred to be irrelevant. Indeed, the evolutionary history of life exhibits the chain of successive events linked by the apparent common association with the notion of symmetry. The four most significant are:
(I) the appearance of prevalent molecular chirality,
(II) bilateral organisms,
(III) pyramidal neyrons (3), and
(IV) the handedness of the human mind.
Events I, II, and IV are the long-term concern of the scientists. The appearance and evolution of PyrN (event III) attracts increasing attention but does not focus on the specific geometric shape of soma.

Author Contributions

Main contribution is done by Dyakin V.V.

Acknowledgments

The author gratefully thanks Nika Dyakina-Fagnano, for her significant contribution to text clarification (especially in the psychology-related parts) and Pamela Butler, Stephen Ginsberg, and Csaba Vadasz for the valuable suggestions and corrections.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest. Main contribution is done by Dyakin V.V.

Abbreviations

Amino acids (AAs). Electroencephalogram (EEG). Pyramidal neurons (PyNs). Central Nervous system (CNS). Psychological functions (PFs). Space-time symmetry and relativity (STSR).

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Figure 1. (top). Transfer of symmetry constraints from molecular to cellular level. a) Tetrahedron–geometrical shape which can be transformed from chiral to achiral version. b) Tetrahedral (sp3-hybridized) carbons with four different substituents are the principal components of biological molecules exhibiting homochirality. c) Tetrahedral structure of water forming about 70 % of cytosol. d) L/D amino acids. e) Tetrahedral structure of hemoglobin (Hb) expressed in neuronal and red blood cells. f) Tetrahedral assembly of DNA. g) Pyramidal neuron. Adopted with changes from [5,6]. PNs were discovered by the Ukrainian anatomist and histologist Vladimir A. Betz (1834–1894) [1]. (bottom). Tree of life. Successive biologically essential evolutionary selections: I—prevalent molecular chirality, II—bilaterality, III—pyramidal neurons, IV—human mind. Adopted from Encyclopedia Britannica Inc. 2012 with alterations.
Figure 1. (top). Transfer of symmetry constraints from molecular to cellular level. a) Tetrahedron–geometrical shape which can be transformed from chiral to achiral version. b) Tetrahedral (sp3-hybridized) carbons with four different substituents are the principal components of biological molecules exhibiting homochirality. c) Tetrahedral structure of water forming about 70 % of cytosol. d) L/D amino acids. e) Tetrahedral structure of hemoglobin (Hb) expressed in neuronal and red blood cells. f) Tetrahedral assembly of DNA. g) Pyramidal neuron. Adopted with changes from [5,6]. PNs were discovered by the Ukrainian anatomist and histologist Vladimir A. Betz (1834–1894) [1]. (bottom). Tree of life. Successive biologically essential evolutionary selections: I—prevalent molecular chirality, II—bilaterality, III—pyramidal neurons, IV—human mind. Adopted from Encyclopedia Britannica Inc. 2012 with alterations.
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Figure 2. Two pillars of human biology: homochirality and bilaterality. A broad view of biological symmetry assumes that chiral expression from the molecular to macromolecular and cellular levels plays a vital role in physiology underlying perceptual and cognitive function linked with the emotional and behavioral expression of bilateral organisms.
Figure 2. Two pillars of human biology: homochirality and bilaterality. A broad view of biological symmetry assumes that chiral expression from the molecular to macromolecular and cellular levels plays a vital role in physiology underlying perceptual and cognitive function linked with the emotional and behavioral expression of bilateral organisms.
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Figure 3. At the molecular level, biological symmetry preference among stereoisomers exists in two forms: the preference for L-enantiomers (chiral) and cis diastereomers (achiral). While enantiomers can only come in pairs, many diastereomers exist for a given molecule.
Figure 3. At the molecular level, biological symmetry preference among stereoisomers exists in two forms: the preference for L-enantiomers (chiral) and cis diastereomers (achiral). While enantiomers can only come in pairs, many diastereomers exist for a given molecule.
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