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The Mediating Effect of Lack of Social Interaction and Financial Stress between COVID-19 and Domestic Violence: A Post-COVID Scenario of Pakistan

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06 February 2024

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07 February 2024

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Abstract
Purpose: The pandemic, named COVID-19, which shook global economy, production and trade has equally affected the social and domestic lives of ours. In this study the COVID-19’s impact has been investigated on lack of social interaction, financial stress and how it influences the domestic violence in a developing country like Pakistan. The study focuses on some of the important factors that are root causes of increased domestic violence in Pakistan. Design/methodology/approach: The study is quantitative and survey questionnaire has been conducted for structural equation modelling (SEM) to evaluate the hypotheses. The modified scale was validated using confirmatory factor analysis, the Purposive and snowball sampling technique is used for collecting data from 200 respondents of Punjab Pakistan for data analysis through SPSS and SmartPLS. Findings: It is revealed that Covid 19 has a significant effect on lack of social interaction and financial stress. Moreover, lack of social interaction and financial stress also enhances domestic violence. Finally, lack of social interaction and financial stress mediates COVID-19 and domestic violence. Originality/value: This study appears to be frontier research which determines the impact of COVID-19 on lack of social interaction, financial stress and domestic violence particularly in a developing country like Pakistan.
Keywords: 
Subject: Arts and Humanities  -   Humanities

1. Introduction

Combating the emerging coronavirus in 2019 has become a global priority in infectious disease management (COVID-19). Between 2–14 days, the most prevalent symptoms are pyrexia, exhaustion, dry cough, myalgia, and dyspnea (Wang et al., 2020; Bajwa et al., 2024). The pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has demonstrated an insufficient response to the looming global crisis, particularly in response to anxiety. Human experiences during the COVID-19 epidemic may be mentally, physically, socially, and spiritually harmful. During the covid-19 pandemic risk of violence increases due to more time at home with abusers, increased pressure, separation from social networks, and restricted access to essential services (WHO, 2021). Due to the specific environmental pressures associated with COVID-19, it is expected that an unusually large proportion of the country’s population would acquire an unequally distributed depression (World Health Organization, 2020).
Indeed, human beings are known as social animals because generally human beings cannot live-in isolation but, COVID-19 pandemic has significantly altered the nature of social interactions. Following the World Health Organization’s classification of COVID-19 as a pandemic (11 February 2020), public health professionals and authorities advocate social isolation as the primary strategy for preventing SARS-CoV-2 transmission. In the majority of countries, all ages of people, including academic personnel and students, were guided to avoid physical social contact as well as participation in social and community activities, family gatherings, and public gatherings. With only a few exceptions, people returning from more severely affected areas, as well as the elderly and those with pre-existing health issues, were forced to isolate themselves by nation governments. This study demonstrates that a lack of social interaction has a negative impact on people’s mental and physical health for COVID-19. However, there is also considerable evidence that lack of social interaction can have a detrimental impact on physical health (HoltLunstad et al., 2010; Steptoe et al., 2013; Suleman et., 2023). The rise in anguish that many Americans are feeling because of social isolation is a natural reaction.
The Economic Participation and Opportunity subindex has the second-substantial gender disparity among the index’s four components. To date, the nations with the lowest disparities in Economic Participation and Opportunity are Lao People’s Democratic Republic (91.5 percent), the Bahamas (85.7 percent), Moldova (81.1 percent), Iceland (84.6 percent), Latvia (82.2 percent), Burundi (85.5 percent), and Sweden (81.0 percent). On the other hand, the nations with the highest economic gender disparities include Iran (where only 37.5 percent of the gender space has been addressed), India (32.6 percent), Pakistan (31.6 percent), Syria (28.5 percent), Yemen (28.2 percent), Iraq (22.8 percent), and Afghanistan (18 percent). Financial stress is a psychophysiological response to the perception of injustice, ambiguity and danger in managing financial resources and making decisions. Financial loss during Covid-19 is a serious socioeconomic problem and another risk factor for symptoms of psychological disorders. The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is profoundly financial stress around the globe. “A condition that is the result of financial and/or economic events that create anxiety, worry, or a sense of scarcity, and is accompanied by a physiological stress response”. Additionally, the fiscal strain of the lockdown had an effect on the family’s financial status and husband’s attitude, exacerbating the matter. This epidemic should serve as a wake-up call to everyone to develop a solid financial strategy that takes into account appetite risk, habit savings, adaptability to income shocks.
Presently, an additional 20 countries have gender disparities in executive positions of up to 80% or more. Women have 14.7% of management jobs across all 20 nations, implying an 83 percent gender disparity. Morocco has a share of 13% (85 percent of the gap); Bangladesh has a share of 11% (88 percent of the gap); Egypt has a share of 7.4 percent (92 percent of the gap); Saudi Arabia has a share of 6.8 percent (93 percent of the gap); Pakistan has a share of 5% (95 percent of the gap); and Yemen has a share of 4.1 percent (96 percent gap). Violence against women, regardless of when, where, or how it occurs, is a heinous violation of their human rights. There are multiple kinds of violence against women, all of which can be harmful to mothers’ and children’s health. Violence against women may result in major physical, emotional, sexual, and reproductive health issues, including STDs, HIV, and unintended pregnancies. In the most severe circumstances, violence against women may be fatal. The consequences of violence are often long-lasting. Violence in any kind may have a lasting effect on a woman’s well-being for the remainder of her life. This is intolerable, and the dangers of violence against women and their children that women and their children confront during the present COVID-19 crisis cannot be overlooked.
According to the WHO, almost one in three (30 percent) at some point in their lives, women all over the around the world, there are victims of physical and / or sexual violence by intimate partners, or sexual assault by non-partners. Due to Pakistan’s patriarchal society, over 90% of married women allegedly face sexual and physical abuse, this is considered a private family issue and is not a reportable crime (A. M. Baig et al., 2020; M. A. M. Baig et al., 2020). This bleak reality is ingrained in our culture and is a blatant violation of human rights under international law. Additionally, women experience prejudice and violence on a daily basis as a result of Pakistani society’s cultural and religious traditions. Domestic violence is a pervasive social and public health concern in Pakistan (Baig et al., 2020). Violence against women is a significant human rights abuse with far-reaching consequences for victims, their families, and society as a whole. Domestic violence is the most prevalent kind of violence that happens inside the family or within a partnership that assumes cohabitation (Nittari et al., 2021; Suleman et al., 2023). At the moment, rates of violence against women are increasing, which is especially concerning during COVID-19, since the epidemic impacts practically every nation and has a substantial negative influence on health, economics, and social aspects.
Taking Pakistan as an example, in this article, independence from culture, religion, history, and nation is required to fully realize human rights in general, but because women’s rights are different, this woman’s human rights strategy is Claim to be inadequate. This study is based on cross-sectional data from the developing country of Pakistan. Domestic abuse affects around 70% to 90% of Pakistani women, according to estimates. The majority of this violence occurs between intimate partners. Domestic violence against women has risen by 300 percent in China, 50 percent in Brazil, 30 percent in Cyprus, France, and New Zealand, 25 percent in the United Kingdom (UK), and 20 percent in Spain in the aftermath of the COVID-19 epidemic (Graham-Harrison et al., 2020; Bradbury-Jones and Isham, 2020; New Zealand Family Violence Clearinghouse, 2020). According to Pakistan’s Sustainable Social Development Organization (SSDO, 2021), domestic abuse charges against women have increased as a result of COVID-19 regulations. Domestic violence is seen as a private concern in Pakistan, since it happens inside the family, and hence is not an acceptable subject for evaluation, intervention, or policy reform (Qureshi, 2020).
If a person is experiencing financial trouble, this is considered a trigger for “stress.” During this difficult period of COVID-19 financial hardship, a lack of social connection contributes to a rise in stress levels associated with individual, in Pakistan, women face societal, psychological, and emotional abuse. As a result, the risk of domestic violence rises, especially among women who are already in an abusive relationship (Munir et al., 2021).
Although, previous research has been done on domestic violence in developed countries, but limited studies have been conducted in terms of Covid 19 and especially in developing country like Pakistan. This unique study explores the impact of COVID-19 on financial stress, lack of social interaction and domestic violence along with mediation effect in Pakistan. Additionally, it highlights activities that may be taken to mitigate the negative consequences of financial devastation caused by the epidemic. Without a doubt, the COVID-19 pandemic is a major stressor affecting mental health around the world. Female aggression is significantly predicted by financial strain and a lack of social support. This research is also beneficial for policy makers and Government agencies as they can focus on these outcomes to reduce domestic violence against women.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

Previous research has discovered a link between natural disaster exposure and an increase in domestic violence (DV) rates (Gearhart et al., 2018). Another catastrophe lies in the shadows of the worldwide public health and economic instability caused by the Covid-19 pandemic: growing incidences of violence against women (Suleman & Rahman, 2020). Women are the soul of every nation. Domestic violence occurs as a result of a variety of interconnected factors such as following a natural disaster, stress can be caused by Physical confinement, economic turmoil, business slowdown, potential unemployment, lack of basic necessities, limited social assistance. While precedent for the present scenario (lockdown) is limited, studies of previous catastrophes and their consequences may shed some insight on the causes contributing to the current trend of increased domestic violence (Suleman & Mohamed, 2019; Suleman, Mohamed & Ahmmed, 2020). Additionally, there are still nations where women’s literacy rates are much lower than men’s. According to the Pakistan Employees’ Federation, at least 500,000 textile and garment sector workers were laid off in March alone in Punjab province. These economic downturns disproportionately impacted women, particularly self-employed and domestic workers 12, 2020. Only 14 percent of women and 31.3 percent of men in Chad are educated, whereas 22 percent of women and 43.6 percent of men are literate in Guinea. Similarly, less than 67 percent of the literacy gender gap has been closed in Liberia, Yemen, Mali, Pakistan, Benin, Senegal, Burkina Faso, Togo, and Angola. Globalization’s altering paradigm has led in their growing engagement in the labor force. They are seen as markers of growth on a worldwide scale, and their abilities and potentials are highly regarded (Suleman et al., 2021).
Pakistan is towards the bottom of the World Economic Forum’s global gender parity ranking (ranks 151 out of 153 states), according to the study (Alizai et al., 2020). Additionally, the research noted that economic prospects for women in Pakistan are quite restricted. In Pakistan, women earn 32.7 percent of what males earn. Regrettably, each community has a few perpetrators who advocate for violence against and abuse of women and erect impediments to their social and economic progress. Domestic violence is a complicated subject, and it is critical to understand how and why it occurs. Such knowledge may aid in the development of measures for reducing DV. Numerous theories for DV have been presented over the last few decades from a variety of angles. Domestic violence is not a distinct crime in Pakistan, so physical abuse is classified as individual assault. Women’s rights need international engagement on a global scale, and this Note will explore the recurrent patterns of breaches of women’s rights in Pakistan (Waheed, 2004). Globally, estimating the prevalence of violence against women is challenging (Reyes, Solis, & Marlene, 2020).
“Violence against women is pervasive in every nation and culture, affecting millions of women and their families, and has been aggravated by the COVID-19 epidemic,” said WHO Director-General Dr Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus. Depression rates in the United Kingdom doubled during the COVID-19 epidemic, according to ONS data. According to the most recent figures, the number of persons suffering moderate to severe depression symptoms grew to 19.2 percent in June 2020. However, unlike COVID-19, violence against women cannot be eradicated by vaccination. We can only defeat it via consistent and deep-rooted efforts on the part of governments, communities, and people to alter harmful attitudes, increase women and girls’ access to opportunities and services, and create healthy and mutually respectful relationships. Stress, disruption of social and protective networks, economic loss, and restricted access to resources may all enhance women’s vulnerability to violence. Violence against women is pervasive, with intimate relationship violence being the most frequent kind. During public health disasters, such as COVID-19 epidemic, violence against women tends to increase.
Pakistan is moderately developed in terms of demographics, culture, and health-nutrition indicators, but less developed in terms of housing, education, and politics. Pakistan is ranked 84th in the third world on the composite social scale. Children raised in violent families are more likely to have behavioral and emotional problems. These may also be associated with perpetration or exposure to violence in later years. Furthermore, intimate partner violence has been linked to an increase in new-born and child morbidity and mortality (through, for example diarrhoeal disease or malnutrition and lower immunization rates).
Framework
The model shown in Figure 1. below provides a framework for understanding the connection between the variables.
The study contributes to the understanding of the psychological effects of COVID-19 on domestic violence in Pakistan. Several theoretical contributions are made by this study. First, it empirically established links between the psychological impact of COVID-19, social isolation, financial stress, and domestic violence among Pakistani citizens, which had previously been overlooked in the literature. Previous studies used various psychological theories to investigate the causes of domestic violence. All of the most popular theories allow the perpetrators to use power and control, but the role of power and control depends on the theory. Violence as object relations theory, attachment theory, and trauma theory is in the psychodynamic theory being discussed. Control theory, resource theory, ecosystem factor theory, and social isolation theory are all discussed.
Cognitive / behavioral theory is created using social learning theory, behavioral genetics theory, reactive aggression theory, and learned helplessness theory. In this paper, the researcher concentrated on two major theories: social interaction theory and feminist theory.
Bandura’s (1993) as conditioned behavior, male endorsement of physical and psychological violence against women was addressed by social learning theory (Brown et al., 2005). The social learning hypothesis best explains domestic violence. What is the purpose of introducing this hypothesis? Albert Bandura’s Social learning theory emphasizes the importance of observing, modeling, and imitating the behavior, attitudes, and emotional responses of others social learning theory addresses the interaction of environment and cognitive variables that affect human learning and behavior. When used to explain a person’s violent or antisocial behavior, this hypothesis suggests that the individual witnessed violent behavior between parents, siblings, or both. What does the theory of social leering have to say about violence? According to the social learning hypothesis, violence is a learned habit that can be exacerbated by stress, alcoholism, or a lack of resources. From a young age, our parents taught us how to behave. Conditioned behavior is a result of the social context of domestic violence, which is based on the frequency of abuse, which is used to instigate violent acts. Males commit abusive acts against women, according to exchange theory, a subset of social learning theory, because they see them as a necessary activity for controlling and dominating (Galles & Cornell, 1985).
Feminist theory has argued that the majority of societies have patriarchal social phenomena (Renzetti, 2018). What is Feminist theory? Feminist theory is feminism’s theoretical, fictional, or philosophical extension. It aims to see inequality of gender through gender politics, power dynamics and sexuality. Many feminist theories deal with the advancement of women’s rights and interests and criticize these social and political situations. What is the significance of feminist theory? Feminist theory helps us better understand and deal with unequal and oppressive gender relationships. What is the significance of feminism? Feminism promotes equality for both sexes. Gender roles (a set of rules that dictate how a person should behave based on gender) can harm both men and women. It is also unethical to pressure boys to play the role of gender.
The findings of this study confirm that during the current COVID-19 outbreak, these factors develop the impact of COVID-19, financial stress, social isolation, and their impact on domestic violence. These findings add to the body of literature and support the theoretical foundation. Furthermore, this is a pioneer study that empirically tested the underpinning theory to examine the impact of COVID-19, situational depression, and their impact on domestic violence among Pakistani citizens.

2.1. Empirical Evidence

This paper investigates how the Covid-19 pandemic affects the prevalence of domestic violence in Pakistan. So far, all countries have closed at least 93 percent of their health gender gaps, with 56 countries having achieved full gender parity. According to preliminary research, the COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated domestic violence in Pakistan. However, populous countries such as China, India, Azerbaijan and Pakistan have reached less than 94%, and China is a slight improvement over the previous edition. The skewed sex ratio at birth is the primary driver of cross-country variation. In China, for every male birth, there are 0.88 female births; in Azerbaijan and Vietnam, it is 89 percent; in Armenia, it is 90 percent; in India, it is 91 percent; and in Pakistan, it is 92 percent, all of which are lower than the natural and biologically constant ratio of about 94 percent. Son preference norms and gender-biased prenatal sex-selective practices can account for these ratios.

2.1.1. ABCDEFG

Abcdefg

Each year, China and India account for approximately 90 to 95 percent of the estimated 1.2 to 1.5 million female births worldwide due to gender-specific prenatal sex-selective practices. Furthermore, China, India, and Pakistan have high female mortality rates (under the age of 5) due to Postnatal sexual selection negligence and gender bias practices. In 2020, The estimated number of missing women was 142.6 million, more than double the number of 61 million in 1970. In terms of life expectancy, most of the countries included in the index have near gender parity. Globally, women outlive men; however, life-expectancy gender gaps persist in countries such as Qatar (95.0 percent), Afghanistan (97.3 percent), Mauritania (98.7 percent), and Jordan (98.7 percent). Similarly, numerous articles claim that the number of domestic violence cases handled by shelters and women’s organizations is increasing. These reports came from seven different countries’ media outlets: Indonesia, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Australia, Tonga, and China. According to one report, The number of cases processed during lockdown has tripled. According to some reports, many reported cases of domestic violence include first-time criminals. This may indicate that the pandemic situation is driving partners to an unprecedented level of attack. The incidence of digital violence appears to have increased as a result of increased use of the Internet during pandemics. As the pandemic worsened, calls to Pakistan’s hotlines nearly tripled, with women reporting most cases (ESCAP, 2020).
Hypotheses Development
Many psychological factors have been identified as possible causes of increased domestic violence. This study tests the following hypothesis about the relationship between the above variable COVID-19 and the onset of domestic violence in women. Despite the fact that most of these causal mechanisms are speculative, many factors have been identified as potential drivers of increased risk of violence against women. This study tested the following hypotheses regarding the association between the COVID-19 pandemic and the occurrence of domestic violence in women as a result of economic stress and social isolation.
Covid-19 and Domestic Violence
Domestic violence statistics in Pakistan are concerning even before the COVID-19 pandemic(Martins et al., 2020). According to academic researchers, in the general population, the lifetime prevalence of domestic violence ranged from 10.2 percent to 65.0 percent (Chen and Xia 2015). This study tested the following hypotheses regarding the association between the COVID-19 pandemic and the occurrence of domestic violence in women as a result of economic stress and social isolation (Zhang, 2020). Consider the number of family violence reports received by local police in Punjab. Based on the foregoing, the current study asserted that as a result of Covid-19, domestic violence has increased, as have social and public health issues, which have long been a problem in Pakistan. As a result, the following hypothesis has been proposed:
H1: COVID-19 has a significant positive impact on Domestic Violence
COVID-19 and Financial Stress
According to the World Bank, a pandemic could put 88 to 115 million people in extreme poverty by 2020, nearly half of whom live in South Asia (Sarkar et al., 2020). On a scale of 1 to 5, respondents were asked to rate their level of financial stress in the year preceding the survey. In addition, they were asked to rate their financial stress in the months leading up to February 2020. We compared these to see if the pandemic increased the financial burden. They were also asked if, in addition to the financial burden, they or their partners had lost their jobs or suffered wage cuts in the past year. Based on the discussion above, the current study concluded that covid-19 causes financial stress and, as a result, mental health problems, which are a persistent problem in Pakistan. As a result, the following hypothesis was created:
H2: COVID-19 has a significant positive impact on financial stress.
COVID-19 and Lack of Social Interaction
In Pakistani society, socialization and social activity are highly valued, and people value social interaction. As a result of blockades and social distances, many routine activities are disrupted, and people’s emotional stress is increasing. COVID-19 and the government’s response to it will have long-term and short-term consequences for everyone’s health. One source of concern is the growing lack of privacy and social interaction caused by COVID-19 and its subsequent blockade, and the consequent strengthening of unfair gender norms. Pakistan claims that the isolation from the community caused by the COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in a rapid increase in depression and anxiety in the context of the Punjab lockdown similarly, Sijia Li et al., (2020), an online survey conducted before and after the official epidemic declaration on January 20, 2020 found that negative emotions and susceptibility to social risks increased, and positive emotions and life satisfaction scores decreased. I found out. Little attention should be paid to the impact of peer interactions on the lives of all, despite the fact that adolescent health professionals emphasize the crucial importance of peer interactions in adolescent development has not been paid (Patton et al., 2018). The host communities of the Cox’s Bazar and Rohingya refugee camps in Bangladesh and the host communities of the Palestinian and Syrian refugee camps in Jordan show contrasting pandemic reactions. Based on the foregoing, the current study concluded that covid-19 increases the lack of social interaction and, as a result, the ongoing social and public health problem in Pakistan. Therefore, following hypothesis has been developed:
H3: COVID-19 has a significant positive impact on lack of social interaction
Financial Stress and Domestic Violence
Employment is one of the most commonly used indicators of financial health and stability. This pandemic serves as a reminder to everyone to have a solid financial plan in place that considers the risk of appetite, savings patterns, and resilience to income shocks. This one-of-a-kind study looks into the impact of COVID-19 on individuals’ personal finances in India and Pakistan. As a result, actions must be identified to mitigate the negative effects of financial stress caused by the pandemic. Studies of trans-social domestic violence show that there is a strong inverse relationship between financial stress and the risk of women being victims of domestic violence. As the social class grows, so does the likelihood of being a victim of domestic violence. According to a new study from the University of California, Davis stressed the COVID-19 pandemic due to loss of income and inability to pay for housing and food, exacerbating often silent epidemic of domestic violence. Based on the preceding discussion, the current study concluded that financial stress has an impact on domestic violence and, as a result, social and domestic problems in Pakistan, which is a continuing issue. As a result, the following hypothesis was created:
H4: Financial stress has a significant positive impact on domestic violence.
Lack of Social Interaction and Domestic Violence
In fact, the family is our society’s most important institution. Internal family dynamics can have an impact on a child’s future development in both positive and negative ways (Alshareef et al., 2015). Unfortunately, the virus has permanently altered the land situation. Because medicine knows so little about the virus, it has determined that ‘lockdown’ appears to be the only cure for the time being. Most companies in Pakistan are closed and due to their limited economic power and social interaction, Pakistan will face difficult times in the coming years (Government of Pakistan, 2020). There is a widespread misconception in modern society that violence occurs only in low-income families. However, domestic violence occurs in all sectors of society, regardless of cultural, religious, social, legal, or economic factors. Lack of social interaction combined with pandemic-related psychological and economic stressors, and the potential increase in negative coping, can lead to an unprecedented surge in domestic violence (van Gelder et al., 2020). Based on the discussion above, the current study concluded that a lack of social interaction has an effect on domestic violence and, as a result, COVID-19 in the general population, which is a persistent problem in Pakistan. As a result, the following hypothesis has been proposed:
H5: Lack of social interaction has a significant positive relationship with domestic violence.
COVID-19, Financial Stress and Domestic Violence
Financial constraints and pressures pose psychological difficulties as most of Pakistan’s population works in the private sector or is employed on a daily basis, with 24% of the total population living below the poverty line and 38.8% poor. I made it worse. Domestic violence has increased worldwide since the outbreak of Covid-19, according to new data. Over the past year, an estimated 243 million girls and women between the ages of 15 and 49 have been victims of physical or sexual violence in the hands of intimate partners. The impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on violence applies to a larger pattern, as violence against women tends to increase during disasters and illnesses.
For example, during the 2014 Ebola outbreak, parts of Sierra Leone experienced a 65 percent increase in teenage pregnancy, most likely as a result of expanded assaults amid the scourge. A assortment of components contribute to the increment in savagery against ladies amid open wellbeing emergencies. This segment distinguishes three components that contributed to expanded viciousness and diminished bolster amid the COVID-19 widespread: expanded introduction to culprits due to lockdown orders and care obligations, activating unpleasant situations for culprits, and diminished back administrations. Financial stress was a strong predictor of violence prior to the pandemic. According to the study’s findings, the widespread is related with an expanded chance of savagery against ladies in current cohabiting connections, most likely as a result of a combination of money related push and a need of social interaction. Based on the preceding discussion, the current study asserted that in covid-19, financial stress increases domestic violence, thereby increasing social and public health problems, which is a persistent problem in Pakistan. As a result, the following hypothesis was created:
H6: Financial stress significantly mediates between Covid-19 and domestic violence.
COVID-19, Lack of Social Interaction and Domestic Violence
In spite of the fact that the open wellbeing benefits of social removing, confinement, and quarantines are well set up and required for diminishing the hazard of coronavirus malady transmission (COVID-19), the disease caused by the COVID-19 (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2), When considering the impact of domestic violence, there are also likely consequences. According to the current study, covid-19 financial stress increases domestic violence and, as a result, psychological problems, which is an ongoing issue in Pakistan (Yasin, Iqbal, 2020). As a result, the following hypothesis was created:
H7: Lack of social interaction significantly mediates between covid-19 and domestic violence

3. METHOD AND MATERIAL

Research Design

3.1. Sample design

3.1.1. Sample.

In Pakistan, a purposive sampling technique was used to reach the 200 respondents via social media platforms such as Facebook, WhatsApp, and Twitter. This study included respondents from Punjab. This survey was only open to women. The survey includes a representative sample of people from Punjab, Pakistan, who range in age, education level, length of marriage, number of children, source of income, and family monthly income. The survey’s major cities include Lahore, Faisalabad, Jhelum, Rawalpindi, and Sargodha. Unfortunately, survey data is also difficult to collect in the context of the pandemic, in spite of its higher quality than regulatory information. For well-being and security reasons, face-to-face intelligent must be restricted, restricting the capacity to conduct standard overviews. Completing electronic studies may put ladies at chance in the event that they are being closely studied.

3.1.2. Measurement

The study was planned with an organized survey that has two parts: the statistic profile of the respondents and 61 items on Likert scale to measure the effect of COVID-19 on ladies’ savagery with related factors. Each overview address was carefully chosen to supply significant data on particular viewpoints of the covid-19 effect on people’s accounts, need of social interaction, and savagery against ladies.

Covid-19 scale:

During covid-19, participants’ uneasiness and misery levels were surveyed utilizing the Persian form of the Clinic Uneasiness and Misery Scale (HADS), and a Likert scale was utilized to decide whether people caught on the thing portrayals (Ahorsu et al., 2020).

Financial stress:

The analyst made the estimation scale, which is based on a three-dimensional conceptual system of monetary push: (a) full of feeling responses, (b) relational/interpersonal behavior, and (c) physiological reactions. Stretch indications show themselves in two ways: sincerely and physiologically (APA, 2017a), and they are unequivocally connected (Heo et al., 2020).

Domestic violence:

States of mind towards residential viciousness survey (ADV) by (Fox & Gadd, 2012) was adjusted to degree household viciousness. All of the adjusted scales were assessed employing a five-point Likert scale extend (1= “strongly oppose this idea and 5 “strongly agree”).

3.2. Data collection Procedure

In this graphic ponder, the purposive and snowball inspecting strategies were utilized. From May 22, 2021, to June 20, 2021, a web study was used to gather data. The whole survey information was kept mysterious to preserve information astuteness and dodge individual predisposition. A web survey, moreover, had a custom setting that constrained clients to as it were one reaction. Online surveys were conveyed through email and social media stages (WhatsApp, Facebook, LinkedIn and Instagram) since of the focal points of wide scope, technology-based (fast and innovative) and cost-free. Since the endless larger part of LinkedIn contacts are experts with a source of wage, they were particularly chosen to gather the foremost relevant overview information. People (for the most part well-known) who win and oversee their funds were essentially focused on other social media stages such as WhatsApp, Facebook, and Instagram.
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Figure 2. Data preparation and analysis method.
Figure 2. Data preparation and analysis method.
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The ultimate information came from 200 respondents. The pre-defined investigate questions guided the investigation. The infographic representation of study comes about comes to a expansive group of onlookers with high-quality comes about.

4. RESULTS

Table 1 illustrates the statistic profile of the respondents who took portion in this consider. The foremost of respondents 105(52.5%) were 20-30 a long time ancient. In terms of formal instruction, 79 (39.5%) respondents expressed that they a bachelor’s degree. Most of this study’s respondents 78 (39%) were 5-10 a long-time length of marriage. Whereas larger part 94(47%) of the respondents were having 3-4 children. In term of source of salary, most of respondents 145 (72.5%) expressed that they were working private division. A add up to of 89 (44.5%) respondents in this ponder were claimed that their family in between 21,000 – 40,000 individually.

DATA ANALYSIS

This research has analyzed information through SPSS and SmartPLS 3.2.8 version SmartPLS may be a fast-growing second-generation strategy, as prescribed by (Hair et al., 2014). The authors recommended running bootstrapping with 5000 subsamples to realize critical comes (Hair, et al. 2017). Previous studies have found that Partial Least Squares Structural Modeling is effective (PLS-SEM). Because it relates to computing comes about and beginning builds, procedure is predominant Covariance-based Auxiliary Condition Demonstrating (CB-SEM) (Afthanorhan 2013; Hair et al., 2014). In the PLS-SEM, in addition to the structural model, two models must be run: the measurement model and the structural model. A measurement model is used to assess the validity and reliability of an instrument. While the structural model was used to test the proposed hypotheses. As a result, the researcher in this study used the repeated indicator approach, which is recommended in the literature in smart PLS, to model the second-order factors in the PLS analysis (Hair, et al., 2017).
When utilizing self-reported surveys to gather information, common strategy change must be examined, particularly when both the indicator and basis factors are gotten from the same individual (Podsakoff et al., 2003). Podsakoff and Todor (1985, p. 65) too expressed that “concerns almost same-source inclination or common strategy fluctuation emerge constantly when self-reported measures gotten from the same test are utilized in research.” Within the writing, a few arrangements to this issue have been proposed. A common strategy for recognizing this issue is the Harman’s single figure test. Usually fulfilled by running a foremost component figure examination on all of the major develops (Podsakoff and Organ, 1986). Prove strategy predisposition exists when a single figure develops from the figure investigation, or when one common calculates accounts for the larger part of the covariance among the measures (Podsakoff et al., 2003). The comes about of our examination uncovered a six-factor arrangement with a add up to change clarified of 79.962 percent and the primary calculate clarifying as it were 38.46 percent, affirming that common strategy inclination was not a major issue in this think about.
Measurement Model
Following Henseler et al. (2009), a two-step strategy was utilized to test the show. Within the to begin with step, the estimation demonstrates assessed utilizing concurrent legitimacy incorporates the normal extricated change (AVE), Cronbach’s alpha (α), composite unwavering quality (CR), and discriminant legitimacy. To meet the focalized legitimacy criteria, things with inadmissible loadings less than 0.40 were expelled from the demonstrate (Hair et al., 2014). Agreeing to Hair et al. (2017) merged legitimacy is affirmed by least AVE ranges of 0.559 to 0.878 and CR ranges of 0.909 to 0.960 see Table 2.
Discriminant Validity
Two strategies were utilized to evaluate discriminant legitimacy i.e Fornell & Larcker’s (1981) criteria as well as heterotrait-monotrait (HTMT) Henseler et al. (2015). To set up discriminant legitimacy based on Fornell - Lacker criteria, the square root of the AVE for the develops ought to be more prominent than its correlation with other factors within the demonstrate (Hair et al. 2017). See Table 3.
Table 4 illustrated the discriminant legitimacy estimation comes about of the develops to guarantee discriminant legitimacy (HTMT) proportion basis, the stacking and cross-loading, as well as the Heterotrait-Monotrait, were too assessed. Moreover, the prescribed HTMT values (see Table 4) were less than 0.85 (Henseler et al., 2015). As a result, the factors fulfill the criteria for discriminant legitimacy.
Model Fitness
The standardized root cruel leftover (SRMR) esteem of 0.069 is less than 0.08 and demonstrates that the show fits well (Hair et al., 2017). Cross-validated redundancies (Q2) shown in Table 5 are more noteworthy than zero demonstrates show has little to medium prescient pertinence (Hair et al., 2017). Agreeing to Hair et al. (2017), the coefficient of assurance (R2) of 0.19, 0.33, and 0.67 show that the exogenous variable has little, medium, and significant impacts on the endogenous variable, separately. Be that as it may, Falk and Mill operator (1992) consider an R-square esteem of 0.10 to be satisfactory. As a result, exogenous factors have a minor to direct effect on endogenous factors (see Table 5).
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Figure 3. Measurement Model of the Study.
Figure 3. Measurement Model of the Study.
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Structural Model
Regarding direct effects, 4 form 5 hypotheses were positively significant and supported (see Table 6 and Figure 4). However, the COVID-19 does not have a significant positive influence on domestic violence (β = 0.019, t = 0.310 or p >0.378). Thus, H1 was not supported (Figure 4). While COVID-19 has significant positive relative relationship with financial stress (β = 0.323, t = 7.327or p >0.000), therefore supports the hypothesis 2. Moreover, the results of hypothesis 3 revealed that COVID-19 has significant positive relationship with lack of social interaction (β = 0.804, t = 25.249 or p >0.000), and supports the H3. Likewise, financial stress has significant positive relationship with domestic violence (β = 0.135, t = 2.131 or p >0.016), thus supports the H4, as well as lack of social interaction has significant positive relationship with domestic violence (β = 0.404, t = 5.683 or p >0.000), therefore support the hypothesis 5.
Indirect Effect
With respect to interceding impacts (see Table 7), the result appears that budgetary stretch intercedes the relationship between COVID-19 and residential savagery (β = 0.043, t = 2.062, p >0.019). Subsequently, underpins the theory 6. Besides, need of social interaction too intervenes the relationship between COVID-19 and household viciousness (β = 0.324, t = 5.706, p >0.000), subsequently bolsters the speculation 7.

5. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The COVID-19 widespread could be a quickly advancing circumstance that influences all perspectives of life. Later thinks appear that the virus’s coordinate impacts, as well as the auxiliary impacts of measures such as lockdowns and the money related toll they force on the populace, have had a especially negative affect on mental wellbeing. The reason of this ponder is to see at the impact of Covid 19 on household savagery, as well as the part of social isolation and financial stress as arbitrators. The primary hypothesis isn’t upheld by the discoveries, which appear that there’s no interface between COVID-19 and residential savagery that as it may, in case of moment and third theories the widespread i.e., COVID- has been found that a need of social interaction and budgetary stretch have critical positive connections. COVID-19 does have a coordinate effect on individuals’ individual accounts. The overview moreover incorporates a portrayal of Pakistan’s individual funds. The statistic representation of study comes about clearly appears.
Verifiably, since the pandemic’s flare-up, worldwide rates of mental ailment, especially coronavirus-related mental ailment, have risen. In Pakistan, as it were by many studies, have found that the coronavirus contains a critical mental affect. In any case, in this consider, the normal level of uneasiness and obsessional contemplations caused by COVID-19 is higher than the cut-off scores that essentially decreased social interaction among people, which is the essential reason for the critical positive relationship between need of social interaction and COVID-19. One of the first researchers to define stress as a physiological state was Selye (1936). The endless majority of the test detailed small to no coronavirus uneasiness or fixations, with 14.6 percent announcing clinically critical broken uneasiness and 19.6 percent detailing risky fixations with COVID-19. In Pakistan, rates of misery, uneasiness, and push are higher.
Physical violence against women, according to Roesch et al. (2020), by and large increments in scale and nature amid any normal catastrophe, such as the Zika and Ebola plagues, since they each had a noteworthy effect on the financial and social lives of standard individuals. Additionally, the fourth and fifth speculations were too backed by the discoveries, which appear that both mental factors, such as a need of social interaction and monetary stretch, increment residential savagery among people. Additionally, the comes about appear that the 6th and seventh speculations are moreover backed, as a need of social interaction and money related push essentially intervenes the relationship between COVID-19 and household viciousness.
Managerial Implications
This paper illustrates hypothetically how the Covid-19 widespread may contribute to higher rates of residential viciousness, agreeing to preparatory information. The Covid-19 energizes three major roads in Pakistan: monetary stretch, expanded social confinement, and residential savagery. This ponder illustrates how people reacted to a particular money related possibility of COVID-19The discoveries are interesting and may well be credited to a number of variables, counting a need of COVID-19 social interaction, strength, and culture.
This study throw light on financial stress availability to deal with financial shocks and distinguishes those most defenseless amid such turbulent times. The data indicating an increment within the number of reports of viciousness is concerning. Individual restriction measures amid the covid-19 are a perilous chance figure for residential savagery, which may be exacerbated by variables such as: near contact between the casualty and abuser in terms of shared space and time. Stretch is exacerbated by a need of social interaction, money related stretch, mental components, and a need of openings for the casualty to elude mishandle.
In spite of governments’ vocal commitments to diminishing household savagery, the Variables contributing to higher rates of savagery posture a genuine hazard of fixing the region’s advance over the final 25 a long time. The discoveries of this consider appear that the widespread has had a critical impact on different viewpoints of back in Pakistan. Person wage has been decreased, whereas costs have expanded. The discoveries of this think about seem help the government and policymakers in creating modern rules, directions, and arrangements to advantage the economy.
Limitations and Future Research
The study experienced a few confinements whereas conducting this investigate. To begin with and first, due to the COVID-19 lockdown, it was troublesome to pick up coordinate get to to the common populace of the nation to fill out surveys. As a result, the data was accumulated from as it were 200 respondents, restricting the generalizability of the comes about. The current ponder has a few noteworthy qualities as well as a few impediments. One of the The study’s qualities is that it was conducted amid the early lockdown period of the widespread. This gives critical experiences into the early stages of the widespread, when individuals were still altering to the news of COVID-19. The level of uneasiness and fixation with COVID-19 amid this time period was a curious opportunity to consider the starting effect of the infection. The test estimate given sufficient prove to test the consider speculations. The data was collected from women living in only five major cities in Pakistan (Lahore, Faisalabad, Jhelum, Rawalpindi, and Sargodha). However, future researchers should continue to study the psychological impact of COVID-19 on the general population in this developing country as the pandemic spreads. Despite this being the first study of its kind to be conducted in Pakistan during the COVID-19 lockdown, it has highlighted the sensitive issue of violence against women. Future research could be qualitative or mixed method. The findings of the study will spark an evidence-based debate on violence against women and contribute to existing scientific knowledge, particularly during a country’s depression phase. Pakistan is a volatile country with significant gender disparities (Naz, 2011). Ladies within the nation confront social avoidance and destitution (Raza & Murad, 2010). In spite of a few advances in settling gender-based issues, sex uniformity remains a challenge that ought to be considered nearby other develops.

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Figure 1. Conceptual Framework.
Figure 1. Conceptual Framework.
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Figure 4. Structural Model.
Figure 4. Structural Model.
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Table 1. Demographic Profile of the respondents.
Table 1. Demographic Profile of the respondents.
Demographics Frequency Percentage
Age
20 years or less 12 6%
20 - 30 years 105 52.5%
30 – 40 years 65 32.5
40 years and above 18 9%
Education
Intermediate or less 56 28%
Bachelors 79 39.5%
Masters or above 65 32.5%
Length of Marriage
Less than 5 years 25 12.5%
5 – 10 years 78 39%
11 – 15 years 68 34%
16 years or above 29 14.5%
Number of Children
1 - 2 86 43%
3 - 4 94 47%
5 and above 20 10%
Source of Income
Government Job 40 20%
Private Job 145 72.5%
Business 15 7.5%
Family Monthly Income
10,000 -20,000 69 34.5%
21,000 – 40,000 89 44.5%
41,000 or above 42 21%
Table 2. Convergent Validity.
Table 2. Convergent Validity.
First-Order Constructs Second-order Constructs Items Loadings Cronbach’s Alpha (CA) Composite Reliability (CR) Average Value Extracted (AVE)
COVID-19 0.935 0.945 0.610
Covid1 0.779
Covid10 0.817
Covid11 0.837
Covid2 0.719
Covid3 0.770
Covid4 0.778
Covid5 0.805
Covid6 0.727
Covid7 0.808
Covid8 0.731
Covid9 0.813
Domestic Violence 0.883 0.909 0.559
DV1 0.781
DV2 0.798
DV3 0.758
DV4 0.807
DV5 0.767
DV6 0.777
DV7 0.744
DV8 0.508
Lack of Social Interaction 0.955 0.960 0.633
LSI1 0.795
LSI10 0.793
LSI11 0.829
LSI12 0.698
LSI13 0.804
LSI14 0.826
LSI15 0.835
LSI2 0.771
LSI3 0.771
LSI5 0.783
LSI6 0.805
LSI7 0.787
LSI8 0.814
LSI9 0.821
Affective Reaction 0.909 0.932 0.735
AR1 0.946
AR2 0.780
AR3 0.858
AR4 0.824
AR5 0.872
Physiological Responses 0.882 0.913 0.679
PR1 0.793
PR2 0.843
PR3 0.838
PR4 0.825
PR5 0.821
Relational Behavior 0.911 0.933 0.738
RB1 0.860
RB2 0.849
RB3 0.865
RB4 0.866
RB5 0.856
Financial Stress 0.948 0.955 0.878
AR 0.951
PR 0.960
RB 0.900
Table 3. Fornell-Larcker Criterion.
Table 3. Fornell-Larcker Criterion.
COVID-19 DV FS LSI
COVID-19 0.781
Domestic Violence 0.387 0.748
Financial Stress 0.323 0.289 0.937
Lack of Social Interaction 0.803 0.468 0.365 0.795
Table 4. Heterotrait–Monotrait Criterion.
Table 4. Heterotrait–Monotrait Criterion.
COVID-19 DV FS LSI
COVID-19
Domestic Violence 0.424
Financial Stress 0.343 0.320
Lack of Social Interaction 0.847 0.507 0.384
Table 5. Quality of the Model and Fit Indices.
Table 5. Quality of the Model and Fit Indices.
Endogenous Constructs R Square SRMR Q2
Domestic Violence 0.236 0.069 0.128
Financial Stress 0.105 0.063
Lack of Social Interaction 0.646 0.404
Table 6. Structural Model.
Table 6. Structural Model.
Hypotheses Relationship Path Coefficient T-value P Values Decision
H1 COVID-19 -> Domestic Violence 0.019 0.310 0.378 Not Supported
H2 COVID-19 -> Financial Stress 0.323 7.327 0.000 Supported
H3 COVID-19 -> Lack of Social Interaction 0.804 25.249 0.000 Supported
H4 Financial Stress -> Domestic Violence 0.135 2.131 0.016 Supported
H5 Lack of Social Interaction -> Domestic Violence 0.404 5.683 0.000 Supported
Table 7. Indirect Effect.
Table 7. Indirect Effect.
Hypotheses Relationship Path Coefficient T-Value P Values Decision
H6 COVID-19 -> Financial Stress -> Domestic Violence 0.043 2.062 0.019 Supported
H7 COVID-19 -> Lack of Social Interaction ->Domestic Violence 0.324 5.706 0.000 Supported
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