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Biotechnological Potential of Microorganisms for Mosquito Population Control and Reduction of Vector Competence

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27 June 2023

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27 June 2023

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Abstract
Mosquitoes transmit pathogens that cause human diseases such as malaria, Dengue fever, Chikungunya, yellow fever, Zika fever, and filariasis. Chemical pesticides are effective instruments for reducing disease transmission and managing mosquito populations. However, these chemicals have drawbacks such as high production costs and negative effects on the environment and non-target organisms. Furthermore, as mosquitoes develop resistance to chemical insecticides, they become less effective. As a result, researchers are investigating novel insecticides. Advances in microbial biotechnology have resulted in a wide range of value-added products, including biopesticides for agricultural and public health purposes. In this review, we highlight the mainly untapped biotechnological potential of microorganisms for vector mosquito control and disease transmission reduction. Also, we underline the importance of more basic research and improved translational research methodologies, encouraging efforts to bridge the gap between academic research on biopesticides and public health interventions.
Keywords: 
Biotechnology
;  
microorganisms
;  
bacteria
;  
fungi
;  
vector control
;  
mosquitoes
Subject: 
Biology and Life Sciences  -   Biology and Biotechnology
‡ current address: J.A.S-N.: Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, USA.

1. Introduction

Microorganisms constitute a large group of genetically diverse biological entities found in a wide range of terrestrial and aquatic habitats, playing crucial roles in the balance of ecosystems [1,2,3]. Advances in microbiology, molecular biology, and genomics enabled the biotechnological exploration of microbes, allowing the discovery and production of antibiotics [4,5], foods [6,7], alcoholic beverages [8], bioremediators [9,10], fertilizers [11], and biopesticides [12,13]. The microorganisms associated with mosquitoes have drawn special attention for their potential applications in public health (Figure 1) [14,15,16]. In this review, we highlight the largely unexplored potential of microbes for the control of mosquito-borne diseases and the need for better translational research strategies, encouraging efforts toward bridging the gap between academic research and public health interventions.

2. Bacteria for biological control of medically important mosquitoes

Today, chemical insecticides are used as the main tool for mosquito control [17,18], but are no longer as effective as in the past due to the selection of insecticide resistant individuals in mosquito populations worldwide [19,20,21,22]. Furthermore, chemical insecticides harm the environment, contaminating groundwater systems through infiltration into the soil, reaching riverbeds, accumulating in fish and other animals [23], and through spraying, contaminating the air, affecting human health [24,25]. These facts emphasize the prominent need to develop new, efficient, and environmentally safe tools for the control of vector mosquitoes and the diseases they transmit.
Bacteria of the Bacillaceae family infect insects and produce toxins with insecticidal properties. Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (Bti) and Lysinibacillus sphaericus (Lbs), the latter formerly known as Bacillus sphaericus, are widely known for their larvicidal activity against several species of mosquitoes [26,27,28,29,30]. Due to their high efficacy, safety, and the well-characterized mechanisms of action of their toxins, several strains of Bti and Lbs are included in commercially available biological larvicide formulations endorsed by organizations such as the World Health Organization [31] and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in the United States of America (www.epa.gov/mosquitocontrol/bti-mosquito-control).
The toxins of Bti and Lbs and the mechanisms associated with mosquito mortality have been extensively studied [32,33]. Briefly, in Bti, the molecules responsible for the entomopathogenic action are mainly the crystal toxins Cry4Aa, Cry4Ba, Cry10Aa, and Cry11Aa, the cytolytic toxins Cyt1Aa, and Cyt2Ba, and the P19 and P20 proteins [34,35]. Cry and Cyt toxins, also known as δ-endotoxins, when present in the midgut of mosquito larvae, are proteolytically activated by digestive proteases, bind to specific receptors on the host cell membranes, and cause cell rupture, resulting in death of infected larvae [36]. The Lbs Bin toxins [37,38,39], Mtx [40], Cry48Aa and Cry49Aa [41], display entomopathogenic mechanisms similar to those described above for the Bti toxins [42]. Acting synergistically, these toxins result in effective and potent toxic activity against mosquitoes [43,44,45].
Finding new microbes with larvicidal activities similar to those of Bti and Lbs has been the goal of several research groups around the world. However, this endeavor has been limited by the fact that culture media do not always meet the requirements for the growth of many species of bacteria [46]. Therefore, the search for entomopathogenic bacteria is often limited to those that grow in commercially available culture media. Despite these limitations, bacterial strains that are suitable for cultivation and have larvicidal activity have been identified. Unfortunately, most of them have not been further investigated, developed to applicable products, or tested under field or semi-field conditions. Additional research to understand their mechanisms of action, effects on non-target organisms and potential for large-scale production is needed.
Toward these goals, live bacteria, deactivated bacteria, and fractionated cells or culture media have been tested for their larvicidal activities. For example, Bacillus safensis, Bacillus paranthracis, and Bacillus velezensis culture supernatants and crude lipopeptide extracts were shown to be toxic to Aedes aegypti [47]. Whole genome sequencing and mass spectrometry analysis of those isolated bacteria strains revealed that these microorganisms synthesize bacteriocin, beta-lactone, and terpenes potentially toxic to mosquito larvae [47]. Nineteen Bacillus sp. strains and two strains of Brevibacillus halotolerans isolated from Amazonian environments showed larvicidal activity against Ae. aegypti [48]. The supernatant and pellet fractions of those strains were tested separately, revealing that cellular and secreted metabolites are toxic to mosquito larvae. Bacillus mojavensis kills Ae. aegypti larvae and its action was provisionally attributed to the biosurfactant surfactin thioesterase [49]. The testing of whole or fractionated bacteria and culture media is useful for defining procedures and formulation of new and promising biolarvicides. The identification of bacteria with mosquito larvicidal activities, in addition to Bti and Lbs (Table 1,) instigates their exploration as potential tools for mosquito control.

3. Fungi as vector mosquito biocontrol agents

Fungi, and their metabolites are also potentially useful for the control of medically important mosquitoes [132,133,134,135,136,137]. In fact, fungal strains have already been applied as complementary measures for the control of vector mosquitoes [138,139,140,141].
Beauveria bassiana strains infect and kill a variety of insects, including mosquitoes. Application of B. bassiana spores on surfaces where mosquitoes rest [142], the impregnation of spores in traps [143], association of the fungus with insecticides, such as the combination of B. bassiana and permethrin [144] and the spread of the fungus by females mating with pre-inoculated males [145] have been proposed as means of field applications of B. bassiana against mosquitoes. The attraction of An. stephensi to spores of B. bassiana present in dead and dying caterpillars infected with the fungus [146], has been proposed as a useful alternative to infect mosquitoes. Furthermore, experimental evolution has been applied successfully to increase the efficacy of B. bassiana to Anopheles coluzzii [147].
Exposure to lethal and sublethal doses of B. bassiana spores decreases Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus host-seeking behavior and fecundity [132,148]. Infected mosquitoes, while still alive, spread the fungus through the vector population. Beauveria bassiana spores and extracts are also effective against mosquito larvae [149,150,151]. As a result of this evidence, several strains of B. bassiana are authorized for use as biological insecticides, against vector mosquitoes, by regulatory agencies such as the EPA [152] and ANVISA in Brazil [153].
Metarhizium anisopliae is another fungus with biotechnological potential for mosquito control [154]. Its entomopathogenic mechanism is similar to that of B. bassiana. After contact, the spores germinate, producing hyphae, which in turn penetrate the insect exoskeleton, developing inside the host's body [155,156].
Metarhizium anisopliae CN6S1W1 is effective against Ae. albopictus and Cx. pipiens [157]. The fungus also affects the behavior of An. gambiae mosquitoes by inhibiting blood feeding and reducing fecundity and oviposition [158]. Concurrent infections with both M. anisopliae and B. bassiana shorten the lifespan of Ae. aegypti [142,159]. The synergistic actions of M. anisopliae and B. bassiana, together with the imidacloprid immunosuppressant, showed a greater larvicidal activity against Cx. quinquefasciatus than the respective entomopathogens alone [160]. The metabolites isolated from M. anisopliae are also active against Ae. aegypti, An. stephensi, and Cx. quinquefasciatus [135]. These metabolites represent a solution for mosquito larvae control, since M. anisopliae conidia are not effective in the aquatic environment [161].
In addition to B. bassiana and M. anisopliae, other fungi have been reported with high biotechnological potential for mosquito control. The killing activity of Aspergillus nomius spores toward adult Ae. albopictus was comparable to those of B. bassiana [162]. Crude and purified extracellular extracts of Aspergillus with larvicidal action against An. stephensi, Cx. quinquefasciatus, and Ae. aegypti were reported [163]. ​​Di-N-Octyl phthalate, (1H-Benzoimidazole-2-Yl)-[4-(4-Methyl-Piperazin-1-Yl)-Phenyl]-Amine, and 6,8-Dimethyl-5-Oxo-2,3,5,8-Tetrahydroimidazo [1,2-A] Pyrimidine, secondary metabolites of Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus fumigatus [164] and preg-4-en-3-one, 17. α-hydroxy-17. β-cyano-, trans-3-undecene-1,5-diyne, and pentane, 1,1,1,5-tetrachloro-, from Aspergillus tamarii have been suggested to be responsible for larvicidal activity [165]. The biosafety of products derived from Aspergillus spp, or the fungus itself, still needs to be investigated. Suspensions of A. flavus conidia exhibited considerable toxicity against non-target organisms present in aquatic environments of mosquito larvae [166].
Species of the genus Isaria also have entomopathogenic characteristics for mosquito control. Isaria tenuipes [167], Isaria javanica ARSEF 5874 and Isaria cateniannulata ARSEF 6241 strains showed high levels of pathogenicity toward Ae. aegypti [134]. Larvicidal activity against Cx. quinquefasciatus and Ae. aegypti were demonstrated with silver nanoparticles (AgNps), with secondary metabolites of Isaria fumosorosea (Ifr) [168]. Other fungal species of interest that may be useful for vector control include Trichoderma asperellum [169] and Hyalodendriella sp. [170] which produce metabolites toxic to mosquitoes.
Table 2. Fungal strains toxic to Aedes, Culex, and/or Anopheles mosquito larvae.
Table 2. Fungal strains toxic to Aedes, Culex, and/or Anopheles mosquito larvae.
Fungus Toxic formulation Target mosquito genera Refs
Aedes Culex Anopheles
Beauveria bassiana Fungal suspensions + - - [142]
Surfaces treated with conidia + - - [145]
Spores + - - [132]
Oil-formulated spores - - + [146]
Fungal suspensions - - + [149]
Spores - - + [147]
Fungal suspensions + + - [171]
Metarhizium anisopliae Conidial suspension - + - [172]
Fungal conidia + - - [173]
Fungal suspensions + - - [142]
Conidial suspension + + - [157]
Oil formulation - + + [174]
Secondary metabolites + + + [175]
Aspergillus niger Crude metabolites + + + [163]
Aspergillus flavus Secondary metabolites + + + [164]
Suspensions of conidia + - - [166]
Culture filtrates - + - [176]
Aspergillus fumigatus Secondary metabolites + + + [164]
Aspergillus parasiticus Culture filtrates - + - [176]
Aspergillus tamarii Endophytic Fungal Extracts + + - [165]
Aspergillus terreus Mycelia (Ethyl acetate and methanol extracts) + + + [177]
Emodin compound + + + [178]
Aspergillus nomius Spores + - - [162]
Beauveria tenella Blastospores suspensions + + - [179]
Cladophialophora bantiana Secondary metabolites + + - [180]
Chrysosporium lobatum Secondary metabolites - + + [181]
Chrysosporium tropicum Secondary metabolites + + + [182]
Fusarium moniliforme Isoquinoline type pigment + - + [183]
Fusarium oxysporum Temephos + F. oxysporum extract + + + [184]
Fusarium vasinfectum Culture filtrates - + - [176]
Isaria javanica Conidial suspensions + - - [134]
Isaria cateniannulata Conidial suspensions + - - [134]
Isaria tenuipes Conidial suspensions + - - [167]
Isaria fumosorosea Secondary metabolites + + - [168]
Paecilomyces sp. Secondary metabolites + + + [131]
Penicillium daleae Mycelium extract + + - [185]
Penicillium falicum Culture filtrates - + - [176]
Penicillium marneffei Spores - + - [186]
Penicillium sp. Ethyl acetate extract - + - [187]
Ethyl acetate extract + + - [188]
Pestalotiopsis virgulata Ethyl acetate mycelia (EAM) extracts and liquid culture media (LCM) + - + [189]
Podospora sp. Sterigmatocystin compound - - + [190]
Pycnoporus sanguineus Ethyl acetate mycelia (EAM) extracts and liquid culture media (LCM) + - + [189]
Trichoderma asperellum Methanolic extract - - + [169]
Trichoderma harzianum Mycosynthesized silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) + - - [191]
Trichoderma viride Culture filtrates - + - [176]
Hyalodendriella sp. EtOAc extract + - - [170]
Verticilluim lecanii Spores - + - [186]
This list is not exhaustive but provides ideas for future research and product development opportunities.

4. The role of insect-bacteria associations in vector competence

Associations between mosquitoes and their and microbiota have gained significant attention in scientific research due to their impact on vector competence [192,193,194,195,196,197]. Following, we discuss ways these associations can influence vector competence, including the blocking of pathogen infection through the distinctive properties of symbiotic microorganisms, stimulation of the vector's immune system, and the utilization of symbionts for paratransgenesis. Understanding these interactions is essential for developing effective vector-borne disease control strategies to reduce the impact of these diseases on public health.

4.1. Symbiotic bacteria and their potential against infectious agents

The mosquito microbiota influences host development, nutrition, reproduction, and immune responses to invading organisms [198,199,200,201]. While the composition of the mosquito microbiota is largely defined by the environment in which they live [202,203,204], resident bacteria can modulate the development and replication of parasites and viruses within their vectors [205,206,207,208,209,210,211,212]. Although this modulation can enhance or reduce the survival and replication of pathogens within mosquitoes, those mosquito-microbiota interactions that negatively affect pathogens offer innovative possibilities to control arthropod-borne diseases.
For example, the gram-negative bacteria, Escherichia coli H243, E. coli HB101, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Ewingella americana inhibit the formation of Plasmodium falciparum oocysts, in Anopheles stephensi [213]. Enterobacter sp. (Esp_Z), isolated from the intestine of Anopheles gambiae, inhibited the development of malaria parasites when reintroduced into this same vector species [214,215]. The formation of oocysts of Plasmodium berghei was affected by the presence of Serratia marcescens-HB3 in An. stephensi [216]. In Anopheles gambiae, Escherichia coli, S. marcescens, and Pseudomonas stutzeri reduced the prevalence and intensity of P. falciparum infection [217]. The Serratia Y1 strain exerts inhibitory activity on P. berghei ookinetes by activation of the Toll immune pathway in An. stephensi [218]. Serratia ureilytica (Su_YN1) produces an antimalarial lipase (AmLip) that inhibits the formation of P. falciparum oocysts in An. stephensi and An. gambiae [219]. Asaia SF2.1 also inhibits Plasmodium development in anophelines [220].
Virus replication in their vectors is also regulated by the mosquito microbiota. Bacteria of the genera Proteus, Paenibacillus, and Chromobacterium inhibited the replication of dengue virus serotype 2 (DENV-2) when administered to mosquitoes [110,221]. Some of the mechanisms by which symbiotic bacteria can hamper pathogen development have been elucidated and can be exploited to inhibit the spread of infectious agents by mosquitoes (Figure 2).
The wMel and wAlbB strains of Wolbachia pipientis, an intracellular bacterium, inhibit dengue, chikungunya, and Zika virus replication within mosquito cells [222,223,224,225,226]. However, another Wolbachia strain, wPip, does not inhibit virus infection in Ae. aegypti [227] and the mechanism by which Wolbachia interferes with virus replication has not been fully elucidated. Current hypotheses include competition between Wolbachia and the virus for physical space within mosquito cells and metabolite resources [228,229] and Wolbachia induced modulation of the host's immune system and immune priming [230,231].
Despite the lack of a complete understanding of the mechanism or mechanisms involved in Wolbachia-associated modulation of viral suppression, the Wolbachia-carrying mosquito-based strategy has been deployed as a public health intervention to control dengue transmission (The World Mosquito Program https://www.worldmosquitoprogram.org/). A randomized study carried out in the city of Yogiakarta, Indonesia, compared the areas where Ae. aegypti infected Wolbachia was released with areas without Wolbachia and revealed a 77% lower incidence of dengue cases, in the Wolbachia-treated area [232]. ​​Another study conducted in the city of Niterói, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, reported a 69% reduction in dengue, 56% in chikungunya, and a 37% reduction in Zika incidence three years after the beginning of the release of Ae. aegypti with Wolbachia [233].
Although these results bring optimism regarding the use of Wolbachia for the control of dengue transmission, these bacteria can have variable effects on mosquito-borne viruses. For example, the Wolbachia strain wMel strongly blocked Mayaro virus (MAYV) infections in Ae. aegypti, but another strain, wAlbB, did not influence on MAYV infection in this same vector. Aedes aegypti infected with wAlbB and wMel showed enhanced Sindbis virus infection rates [234]. The variable effects of Wolbachia on vector competence bring into question the safety of the current release of Wolbachia-infected mosquitoes. Furthermore, the potential impact of these bacteria on biodiversity has not been thoroughly investigated [235,236], and the risk of the emergence of DENV variants that escape virus-specific inhibition in Wolbachia infected mosquitoes [237,238], underscores the importance of further research on interactions between Wolbachia, mosquitoes, viruses, and other organisms.
The intracellular bacterium Wolbachia pipientis has also been used to create conditional sterility between released males and wild-type females through cytoplasmic incompatibility [239]. Large-scale trials of Ae. aegypti population suppression carried out from 2017 to 2018 in California and based on the release of 7.5 million and 14.4 million Wolbachia-infected male mosquitoes, resulted in mosquito population suppression rates of 69% and 95%, respectively. Since 2011 in the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has regulated Wolbachia as a biopesticide [240].

4.2. Exploring the potential of fungi as anti-Plasmodium agents for malaria control

Fungi with potential antiparasitic properties, particularly against protozoa of the genus Plasmodium, have been researched as a potential tool to combat malaria. Endophytic fungi isolated from different organs of Annona muricata, a medicinal plant commonly used in traditional Cameroonian medicine against malaria, completely inhibited the growth of P. falciparum in vitro. Of the 152 fungi tested, 17.7% showed activities against different strains of the parasite, with the strongest effects from fungi belonging to the genus Fusarium, Thricoderma, Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Neocosmopora [241]. Compounds such as oxylipin and alternarlactones from Penicillium herquei and Alternaria alternata respectively, demonstrated in vitro antiplasmodial activity [242,243]. A killer toxin purified from Wickerhamomyces anomalus, a symbiotic yeast of insects, when supplemented in a mosquito diet interfered with the development of ookines in the An. stephensi midgut [244]. Aspergillus also showed antiplasmodial activity when supplemented in the mosquito diet. This activity was shown to be related to inhibition of the interaction between parasites and fibrinogen-related protein-1 (FREP1), an agonist of gametocytes and ookinetes [245]. These authors identified the fungal metabolite orlandin as a candidate reagent to inhibit P. falciparum infection in An. gambiae.
The topical application or spraying of B. bassiana on the mosquito cage mesh killed ~92% of An. stephensi on day 14 after exposure and reduced the number of Plasmodium chabaudi sporozoite positive mosquitoes. Although no impact on early stages of the parasite (gametocytes and oocyst stages) was noted, the combined effect of mosquito mortality and reduced sporozoite prevalence was estimated to result in the reduction of malaria transmission risk by a factor of about 80 [246]. However, other studies did not show an impact of B. bassiana or M. anisopliae on the development of Plasmodium species in Anopheles mosquitoes [247,248].
Metarhizium anisopliae has been genetically transformed to express anti-Plasmodium proteins. Mosquitos treated with transgenic M. anisopliae had 71-98% fewer sporozoites present in their salivary glands [248]. Scorpine, one of the molecules expressed by transgenic M. anisopliae, also affects negatively dengue virus replication, expanding the application of genetically transformed fungi to control arbovirus transmission [249]. This study supports the concept of engineering fungi to express proteins that can impact the development of pathogens in mosquitoes and further their use as biopesticides.

4.3. Symbiotic microorganisms and paratransgenesis

Paratransgenesis involves the colonization of vector insects with genetically engineered symbiotic microorganisms that are effective in inhibiting parasite development [250,251,252,253]. Ideal symbionts for effective paratransgenesis are easily manipulated genetically, colonize mosquitoes efficiently, spread into mosquito populations (vertical and horizontal transmission), and are efficient in inhibiting pathogen development in mosquitoes [254]. Proof-of-principle experiments demonstrated that genetically modified bacteria expressing antipathogen molecules are capable of interfering or blocking the development of malaria parasites in mosquitoes [255,256,257]. Among the mosquito symbiotic bacteria, strains of Asaia, Pantoea, Serratia, Pseudomonas, and Thorsellia have been evaluated as candidates for paratransgenesis [258,259,260,261,262].
Advances toward deploying paratransgenesis as a tool for blocking pathogen transmission by mosquitoes include the identification of anti-pathogen effector peptides [251,256]. The secretion of effector molecules from the cytoplasm of bacteria into the lumen of the mosquito intestine has been engineered using the Escherichia coli hemolysin-A secretion system [263]. The discovery of mosquito symbiotic bacteria [256,264,265,266], viruses [267,268,269,270] and fungi [271] is an active area of research. Safety concerns about the release of engineered bacteria into the environment and any uncertain consequences that might occur still need to be addressed when considering paratransgenesis field tests. Self-limiting paratransgenesis [254] has been suggested as an alternative for initial field trials. This approach proposes the utilization of transient expression of antipathogen compounds from a plasmid that is gradually lost, reverting bacteria to their original wild type. Risk assessment still needs to be carried out and laws and regulations need to be created and enacted before paratransgenesis can be tested in field conditions. However, the processes by which genetically modified microorganisms (GMs) can be spread in nature and how they should act to inhibit the development of target parasites in mosquitoes have already been envisaged. This is illustrated in Figure 3, which presents the paratransgenesis process as a multifaceted approach to combating mosquito-borne diseases using GM microorganisms.

5. Roadmap for the development of microbe-based products for controlling mosquito borne diseases

In this review article, we explored the biotechnological potential of microorganisms for mosquito population control and reduction of vector competence. We list many microbial agents with mosquito larvicidal activity and provide information on their active metabolites and mechanisms of action. However, most of these mosquitocidal microorganisms and their metabolites have not been developed into new products and marketed as tools and innovations that can be applied to public health interventions. The explanation for the few biolarvicides available on the market is complex and is determined by technical, regulatory, social, and economic factors.
For example, the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) provided a document with Data Requirements and Approaches to Biological Pesticide Registration (https://www.oecd.org/env/ehs/pesticides-biocides/data-for-biopesticide-registration.htm) including Guidance for Registration Requirements for Microbial Pesticides (https://one.oecd.org/document/env/jm/mono(2003)5/en/pdf). Accordingly, the Regulation of European Commission (EC) No. 1107/2009 regarding criteria for the approval of microbial pesticides emphasizes the importance of assessing the active substances or the microorganisms themselves for effects on the environment or harmful effects on human or animal health [272]. These directives require collaborative research efforts which may take years to complete. In the United States, the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) requires similar assessments, and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) evaluates biopesticides to assure they do not pose unreasonable risks of harm to human health and the environment.
In Brazil [273], the registration of new pesticides, including biolarvicides, requires evaluation by three federal government agencies that assess them independently and in a specific manner. The Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock (Ministério da Agricultura e Pecuária -MAP) evaluates efficiency and potential for use in pest control; the Brazilian Institute of the Environment and Renewable Natural Resources (Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais Renováveis-IBAMA) provides an environmental report; and the Brazilian Health Regulatory Agency (Agência Nacional de Vigilância Sanitária-ANVISA) conducts the toxicological dossier, assessing the product's toxicity for the population and the restrictions and requirements for pesticide use. Like in Europe, the USA, and Brazil, regulatory agencies around the world regulate the registration and application of biopesticides, monitoring efficacy and safety.
The main stages for discovering and developing new larvicides, based on the requirements set forth by the government entities mentioned above, have previously been reviewed [274,275,276]. In summary, the process consists of 1) Discover larvicidal microorganisms; 2) Identify the mechanisms of action of larvicidal microorganisms (live microbial fractions versus metabolites fractions); 3) Evaluating human toxicity and pathogenicity of microorganisms and evaluating their effects on nontarget organisms and the environment; 4) Determine the stability of the candidate larvicide product under field conditions and its shelf life considering its applications in tropical/subtropical, hot and humid environments; 5) Compare the activity of the candidate product with currently available larvicides; and 6) Cost analysis (production, storage, transportation, and field application costs) and research of market viability.
Similar considerations will be necessary for the applications designed for reducing disease transmission, such deployment of microorganisms with antiparasitic activity, including paratransgenesis discussed above.
We hope that this review will encourage additional research and investment in the development of new biopesticides, highlighting the need to follow the requirements established by regulatory agencies for the approval and registration of products that will assist in the control of mosquitoes and the diseases they transmit.

6. Final considerations

Biotechnological approaches using microorganisms have a significant potential to control mosquito populations and reduce their vector competence, making them alternatives to synthetic insecticides. The ongoing research has been crucial in identifying new products and approaches that can be used effectively to control disease transmission. However, the successful implementation of these newly proposed approaches requires a thorough understanding of the multipronged microorganism-mosquito-pathogen-environment interactions. The release of mosquitoes or microorganisms, genetically modified or not, into the environment requires an assessment of the associated risks and benefits. Therefore, environmental and ethical implications of these proposed releases are active areas of debate [277,278].
Although much has been done in discovering new entomopathogenic microorganisms, antipathogen compounds, and their mechanisms of action, reviewed above, only a few have been turned into viable products for mosquito control such as the Bti and Lbs. There is a discrepancy between the number of microorganisms with potential for the development of new products and the actual available products, highlighting the need for investments in the intersection of research and biotechnology to improve the transition of basic into applied research.

Author Contributions

Writing - review and editing, R.M.K., E.M.R., O.M., B.C.B., A.M.C and J.A.S.N; supervision, E.M.R and O.M.; All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was supported by the Human Frontier Science Program Research Grant RGP0007/2017 to J.A.S.N.; by the São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP), 2020/06136-5 to J.A.S.N., and to Prodoc-AM/FAPEAM-003/2022 for providing the scholarship that benefited author RMK.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Environmental and symbiotic fungi and bacteria interact with mosquitoes and the mosquito microbiota, modulating the survival and development of both pathogenic microorganisms and the mosquito. Research that elucidates these interactions is essential for the development of novel biotechnological products for vector control and reduction of disease transmission. Created with BioRender.com.
Figure 1. Environmental and symbiotic fungi and bacteria interact with mosquitoes and the mosquito microbiota, modulating the survival and development of both pathogenic microorganisms and the mosquito. Research that elucidates these interactions is essential for the development of novel biotechnological products for vector control and reduction of disease transmission. Created with BioRender.com.
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Figure 2. Biotechnological potential of mosquito symbiotic bacteria against infectious agents. A, Secretion of toxic substances that either kill or arrest the development and replication of viruses and parasites. B, formation of physical barriers through large population accumulation or rearrangements of molecules secreted into the midgut lumen, preventing the passage of parasites to organs essential for their successful development. C, activation of the mosquito immune system, which not only reduces the load of symbiotic bacteria but also leads to the elimination of invading parasites through the secretion of toxic molecules, preventing their propagation in the mosquito's body. D, competition with infectious agents for space and nutrients can have dire consequences for these pathogens as they must compete with a vastly larger population of symbiotic bacteria in the mosquito's midgut lumen. This results in limited resources for the pathogens, ultimately leading to their decreased survival and replication within the mosquito. E, paratransgenesis approach to synthesize and secrete antipathogen molecules. If this approach receives more attention and research funding from government agencies in endemic countries, it could have a significant impact on reducing the transmission of vector-borne diseases. This topic is further explored in topic 4.3 of this review. Created with BioRender.com.
Figure 2. Biotechnological potential of mosquito symbiotic bacteria against infectious agents. A, Secretion of toxic substances that either kill or arrest the development and replication of viruses and parasites. B, formation of physical barriers through large population accumulation or rearrangements of molecules secreted into the midgut lumen, preventing the passage of parasites to organs essential for their successful development. C, activation of the mosquito immune system, which not only reduces the load of symbiotic bacteria but also leads to the elimination of invading parasites through the secretion of toxic molecules, preventing their propagation in the mosquito's body. D, competition with infectious agents for space and nutrients can have dire consequences for these pathogens as they must compete with a vastly larger population of symbiotic bacteria in the mosquito's midgut lumen. This results in limited resources for the pathogens, ultimately leading to their decreased survival and replication within the mosquito. E, paratransgenesis approach to synthesize and secrete antipathogen molecules. If this approach receives more attention and research funding from government agencies in endemic countries, it could have a significant impact on reducing the transmission of vector-borne diseases. This topic is further explored in topic 4.3 of this review. Created with BioRender.com.
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Figure 3. Paratransgenesis: A multifaceted approach to combating mosquito-borne diseases using GM microorganisms. A, in the laboratory, male mosquitoes are fed a sucrose solution containing GM microorganisms and then released into the wild to mate with wild females. This enables the transmission of the GM microorganisms forward, allowing them to spread throughout the population of wild mosquitoes and helping to reduce the transmission of vector-borne diseases. B, release of GM microorganisms in natural larval breeding sites. GM microorganisms are ingested by larvae and remain associated until the adult phase. If the mosquitoes become infected with any virus or parasite, the GM microorganisms will interfere with the development of the pathogen, thus preventing their transmission. This would result in a reduction in the burden of diseases in the region. C, GM microorganisms can express effector molecules that act directly on the membrane of target parasites in the gut of adult female mosquitoes. These molecules can cause the parasite membrane to rupture, leading to their death or inability to develop. D, persistence of GM microorganisms in mosquitoes for generations through vertical and horizontal transmission. Vertical transmission occurs from parents to their offspring, while horizontal transmission occurs between mosquitoes during mating or sharing of breeding sites. The presence of GM microorganisms can continue to affect mosquito populations for a prolonged period. While it is important to carefully evaluate and monitor the release of GM microorganisms, it is also important to highlight their potential for controlling vector-borne diseases. Created with BioRender.com.
Figure 3. Paratransgenesis: A multifaceted approach to combating mosquito-borne diseases using GM microorganisms. A, in the laboratory, male mosquitoes are fed a sucrose solution containing GM microorganisms and then released into the wild to mate with wild females. This enables the transmission of the GM microorganisms forward, allowing them to spread throughout the population of wild mosquitoes and helping to reduce the transmission of vector-borne diseases. B, release of GM microorganisms in natural larval breeding sites. GM microorganisms are ingested by larvae and remain associated until the adult phase. If the mosquitoes become infected with any virus or parasite, the GM microorganisms will interfere with the development of the pathogen, thus preventing their transmission. This would result in a reduction in the burden of diseases in the region. C, GM microorganisms can express effector molecules that act directly on the membrane of target parasites in the gut of adult female mosquitoes. These molecules can cause the parasite membrane to rupture, leading to their death or inability to develop. D, persistence of GM microorganisms in mosquitoes for generations through vertical and horizontal transmission. Vertical transmission occurs from parents to their offspring, while horizontal transmission occurs between mosquitoes during mating or sharing of breeding sites. The presence of GM microorganisms can continue to affect mosquito populations for a prolonged period. While it is important to carefully evaluate and monitor the release of GM microorganisms, it is also important to highlight their potential for controlling vector-borne diseases. Created with BioRender.com.
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Table 1. Bacterial strains toxic to Aedes, Culex and/or Anopheles mosquito larvae.
Table 1. Bacterial strains toxic to Aedes, Culex and/or Anopheles mosquito larvae.
Bacterium Toxic formulation Target mosquito genera Refs
Aedes Culex Anopheles
Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis (Bti) Extract (spores and crystals) + - - [50]
Sporulated culture powder (Tablet formulation XL-47) + - - [51]
Spores and crystals tablet + - - [52]
Spores and crystals tablet + - - [53]
VectoBac WG + - - [54]
Formulated product - + - [55]
Binary mixtures (Bti plus Deltamethrin) - + - [56]
Cry2Aa and Cyt1Aa crystals - + - [57]
Crystallogenic variants. + + - [58]
Two recombinant proteins (Cry10Aa and Cyt2Ba) + - - [59]
Xpp81Aa toxin combined with Cry2Aa and Cry4Aa + - - [35]
Kappa-carrageenan and Vectobac 12 AS hydrogels + - - [60]
Bti extracts + - - [61]
Vectobac® AS - + - [62]
Granular formulation (Vectobac G) - - + [63]
Dispersible granule (strain AM65-52) + + + [64]
Bti strain Becker Microbial Products (BMP) - + + [65]
Bti product VECTOBAC TP® sprayed - - + [66]
Bti Water Dispersible Granular (WDG) formulation - - + [67]
Water dispersible granule (Bti strain AM65-52 formulation, VectoBac® WDG) - - + [68]
Water-dispersible granule Bti VectoBac (WDG) - - + [69]
Bti VectoBac® WG, AM65-52 strain - - + [70]
Bacillus thuringiensis (Other strains) Total and lyophilised culture + + - [71]
Bacterial cultures + + + [72]
Bacterial suspensions (spores and crystals) + - - [73]
Spores + + + [74,75]
Parasporal crystalline inclusion bodies + - - [35]
Culture supernatant + - + [29]
Synergistic interaction (Purified Cry11Aa and Cyt1Aa Toxins) + - - [76]
Synergistic action of the Cry and Cyt proteins - - + [77]
Lysinibacillus sphaericus (Lbs) Culture supernatant + - + [29]
Spores and vegetative cells + + - [30]
Cell suspension plus glyphosate + - - [78]
Spore crystals (lyophilized powder) + + + [79]
Spores - + - [80]
Granular formulation (Vectobac G) - + + [63]
Vectolex G - + - [81]
S-layer protein - + - [82]
Purified BinA and BinB proteins - + + [83,84]
Spore-crystals and purified S-layers protein - + + [85]
Synergy of Mtx and Cry proteins - + - [44]
Purified BinA and BinB proteins - + - [39]
VectoLex® WG plus Pyrethroid Resigen® - + - [86]
Cry48Aa and Cry49Aa proteins combined - + - [87]
Synergistic interaction (S-Layer and spores/crystals) - + - [88]
VectoLex (ABG-6185) - - + [89]
Suspension (Lyophilized bacteria) - - + [90]
VectoLex® CG - - + [91]
Bin toxin proteins - - + [92]
Acidovorax sp. Cell-Free Supernatant + - - [93]
Aneurinibacillus aneurinilyticus Bacterial suspension + + + [94]
Bacillus amyloliquefaciens Biosurfactant + + + [95]
Bacillus cereus Culture supernatant + - + [29]
Bacillus circulans Spores + + + [96]
Brevibacillus halotolerans Supernatant and pellet fractions of bacterial cultures + - - [48]
Bacillus licheniformis Dahb1 exopolysaccharide (Bl-EPS) + - + [97]
Brevibacillus laterosporus Suspension of sporulated cells + - + [98]
Spore and the canoe-shaped parasporal body (CSPB) structure + - - [99]
Purified protein crystals + - + [100]
Pellets (cells and spores) + - - [101]
Spores + - - [102]
Bacillus paranthracis Pellets (cells) + - - [47]
Bacillus safensis Supernatant and pellet fractions of bacterial cultures + - - [48]
Pellets (cells) + - - [47]
Bacillus subtilis Culture supernatant + - + [29]
Crude cyclic lipopeptides (CLPs) - + - [103]
Crude surfactin - - + [104]
Bacterial biomass + - - [105]
Biosurfactants - - + [106,107]
Bacillus megaterium Bacterial culture + - - [48]
Bacillus nealsonii Secondary metabolites + - - [108]
Bacillus tequilensis Cyclic Lipopeptide Biosurfactant - - + [109]
Bacillus velezensis Bacterial culture + - - [48]
Pellets (cells) + - - [47]
Chromobacterium sp. Hydrogen cyanide + - + [110,111]
Chromobacterium anophelis Bacterial suspension - - + [112]
Pantoea stewartii Silver nanoparticles + + + [113]
Paraclostridium bifermentans Clostridial neurotoxin - - + [114]
Peanibacillus macerans Bacterial biomass + - - [105]
Photorhabdus luminescens Secondary metabolites (Culture fluids) + - - [115]
Secondary metabolites + - - [116]
Photorhabdus luminescens subsp. akhurstii Bacterial cell suspension + - - [117]
Pseudomonas sp. Bacterial cell suspension - + - [84]
Priestia aryabhattai Silver nanoparticles + + + [113]
Serratia marcescens Prodigiosin + - + [118,119]
Bacterial suspension + - - [120]
Serratia nematodiphila Bacterial cultures + + + [72]
Saccharopolyspora spinosa Spinosad (Tracer®) + - + [121]
Spinosad formulation + + + [122]
Spinosad-based product (Laser®) + + + [123]
Spinosad + - - [124]
Spinosad - Tablet (DT) and granules (GR) + - - [125]
Spinosad powder - + - [126]
Spinosad formulation - - + [127,128]
Natular T-30 formulation - + - [129]
Formulation Emulsifiable Concentrate - + - [130]
Streptomyces sp. Secondary metabolites + - - [108,131]
Xenorhabdus indica Bacterial cell suspension + - - [117]
Xenorhabdus nematophila Secondary metabolites + - - [116]
Secondary metabolites (Culture fluids) + - - [115]
Xenorhabdus stockiae Bacterial cell suspension + - - [117]
This list is not exhaustive but provides ideas for future research and product development opportunities.
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Copyright: This open access article is published under a Creative Commons CC BY 4.0 license, which permit the free download, distribution, and reuse, provided that the author and preprint are cited in any reuse.
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