Version 1
: Received: 10 January 2023 / Approved: 12 January 2023 / Online: 12 January 2023 (06:08:29 CET)
Version 2
: Received: 24 February 2023 / Approved: 27 February 2023 / Online: 27 February 2023 (02:04:10 CET)
Christodoulou, D.M.; Kazanas, D. The Upgraded Planck System of Units That Reaches from the Known Planck Scale All the Way Down to Subatomic Scales. Astronomy 2023, 2, 235-268. https://doi.org/10.3390/astronomy2040017
Christodoulou, D.M.; Kazanas, D. The Upgraded Planck System of Units That Reaches from the Known Planck Scale All the Way Down to Subatomic Scales. Astronomy 2023, 2, 235-268. https://doi.org/10.3390/astronomy2040017
Christodoulou, D.M.; Kazanas, D. The Upgraded Planck System of Units That Reaches from the Known Planck Scale All the Way Down to Subatomic Scales. Astronomy 2023, 2, 235-268. https://doi.org/10.3390/astronomy2040017
Christodoulou, D.M.; Kazanas, D. The Upgraded Planck System of Units That Reaches from the Known Planck Scale All the Way Down to Subatomic Scales. Astronomy 2023, 2, 235-268. https://doi.org/10.3390/astronomy2040017
Abstract
Natural systems of units {Ui} need to be overhauled to include the dimensionless coupling constants {αUi} of the natural forces. Otherwise, they cannot quantify all forces of nature in a unified manner. Thus, each force must furnish a system of units with at least one dimensional and one dimensionless constant. We revisit three natural systems of units (atomic, cosmological, and Planck). The Planck system is easier to rectify, and we do so in this work. The atomic system discounts {G,αG}, thus it cannot account for gravitation. The cosmological system discounts {h,α**h**}, thus it cannot account for quantum physics. Here, the symbols have their usual meanings; in particular, αG is the gravitational coupling constant and α**h** is Dirac’s fine-structure constant. The speed of light c and the impedance of free space Z0 are resistive properties imposed by the vacuum itself, thus they must be present in all systems of units. The upgraded Planck system with fundamental units
Keywords
Atomic processes; Cosmological parameters; Cosmology: theory; Early Universe; Elementary particles; Galaxies: kinematics and dynamics; Gravitation.
Subject
Physical Sciences, Particle and Field Physics
Copyright:
This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
