Abstract: We investigate the thermal conductivity of graphene Moiré superlattices formed by twisting bilayer graphene (TBG) at small angles, employing approach-to-equilibrium molecular dynamics and lattice dynamics calculations based on the Boltzmann Transport Equation. Our simulations reveal a non-monotonic dependence of the thermal conductivity on the twisting angle, with a local minimum near the first magic angle (θ∼1.1∘). This behavior is attributed to the evolution of local stacking configurations—AA, AB, and saddle-point (SP)—across the Moiré superlattice, which strongly affect phonon transport. A detailed analysis of phonon mean free paths and mode-resolved thermal conductivity shows that AA stacking suppresses thermal transport while, AB and SP stackings exhibit enhanced conductivity owing to more efficient low-frequency phonon transport. Furthermore, we establish a direct correlation between the thermal conductivity of twisted structures and the relative abundance of stacking domains within the Moiré supercell. Our results demonstrate that even very small changes in twisting angle (<2∘) can lead to thermal conductivity variations of over 30%, emphasizing the high tunability of thermal transport in TBG.

Abstract: Organic dyes are pollutants that threaten aquatic life and human health. These dyes are used in various industries; therefore, recent research focuses on the problem of their removal from wastewater. This aim of this study is to examine the clay/Gum Arabic nanocomposite (CG/NC) as an adsorbent to adsorb methylene blue (MB) and crystal violet (CV) dyes from synthetic wastewater. The CG/NC was characterized using Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), and Brunaure-Emmett-Teller (BET). The effect of parameters that may influence the efficiency of removing MB and CV dyes was studied: (dosage of CG/NC, contact time, pH values, initial concentration, and temperature), and the optimal conditions for removal were determined. Furthermore, an Artificial Neural Network (ANN) model was adopted in this study. The results designated that the adsorption behavior adhered to the Langmuir model and conformed to pseudo-second-order kinetics. The results also indicated that the removal efficiency reached 99%, and qmax reached 66.7 mg/g and 52.9 mg/g for MB and CV, respectively. Results also proved that CG/NC can be reused up to four times with high efficiency. The ANN models have proven effective in predicting the process of the removal, with the low Mean Square Error (MSE = 1.824 and 1.001) and high Correlation Coefficient (R2 = 0.945 and 0.952) for the MB and CV dyes, respectively.

Abstract: Understanding and optimizing thermal conductivity in epoxy-based composites is crucial for efficient thermal management applications. This study investigates the anisotropic thermal conductivity of a tetra-functional epoxy resin filled with low concentrations (0.25–2.00 wt%) of carbonaceous nanofillers: 1-D multiwall carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) and 2-D exfoliated graphite (EG) nanoparticles. Epoxy formulations incorporating MWCNTs exhibit a ~60% increase in in-plane thermal conductivity (λI-p dir.) compared to the unfilled resin, with negligible changes in the through-plane direction (λT-p dir.). Conversely, EG nano-particles enhance thermal conductivity in both directions, with a preference for the in-plane direction, achieving a ~250% increase at 2 wt%. In light of this, the graphene-based fillers establish a predominant thermal transport direction in the resulting nanocomposites due to their layered structure, whereas MWCNTs create unidirectional thermal pathways. Experimental measurements, conducted using the Transient Plane Source (TPS) method, were complemented by multiphysics simulations in COMSOL and theoretical studies based on the theory of thermal circuits to explain the observed phenomena and justify the experimental findings. The TPS results reveal distinct behaviors depending on the nanofiller geometry. This integrated approach, combining experiments, theoretical analyses, and simulations, demonstrates the potential for tailoring the thermal properties of epoxy nanocomposites. These insights provide a foundation for developing advanced materials optimized for efficient thermal management in high-performance systems.

Abstract: This paper reports several preliminary investigations concerning the relative humidity (RH) detection response of a chemiresistive sensor that uses a novel sensing layer based on pristine carbon nano-onions (CNOs) and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) at 1/1 and 2/1 w/w ratio. The sensing device, including a Si/SiO2 substrate and gold electrodes, is obtained by depositing the CNOs-PVA aqueous suspension on the sensing structure by drop casting. The composition and morphology of the sensing film are explored by mean of Scanning Electron Microscopy, Raman spectroscopy, Atomic Force Microscopy, and X-Ray diffraction. The room temperature RH detection performance of the manufactured sensor is examined by applying a continuous flow of the electric current between the interdigitated electrodes and measuring the voltage as the RH varies from 5% to 95%. For RH below 82% (sensing layer based on CNOs-PVA at 1/1 w/w ratio) or below 50.5% (sensing layer based on CNOs-PVA at 2/1 w/w ratio), the resistance varies linearly with RH, with a moderate slope. The newly developed sensor, using CNOs-PVA at a 1:1 ratio (w/w), responded as well as or better than the reference sensor, while the recorded recovery time was about 30 seconds, which is half the recovery time of the reference sensor. Additionally, the changes in resistance (ΔR/ΔRH) for different humidity levels showed that the CNOs-PVA layer at 1:1 was more sensitive at humidity levels above 80%. The main RH sensing mechanisms considered and discussed are the decrease of the hole concentration in the CNOs during the interaction with an electron-donor molecule, such as water, and the swelling of the hydrophilic PVA. The experimental RH detection data are analyzed and compared with the RH sensing results reported in previously published work of RH detectors employing sensing layers based on oxidized carbon nanohorns-polyvinylpirrolidone, oxidized carbon nanohorns-PVA and CNOs-polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP).

Abstract: Transition metal dichalcogenide (TMDC)-based two-dimensional (2D) type-II van der Waals heterostructures exhibit remarkable potential in next-generation optoelectronics, valleytronics, and spintronics. Nevertheless, the inevitable Fermi level pinning (FLP) effect at metal/TMDC interfaces intrinsically leads to elevated Schottky barrier heights (SBHs) and consequent contact resistance degradation. In this work, we present a first-principles investigation on the interfacial physics of metal-contacted WSe₂/MoSe₂ heterostructures with four representative electrodes (Ag, Al, Au, Pt). All the metal-WSe2/MoSe2 contacts induce significant metal-induced gap states (MIGSs), which are responsible for FLP inside the WSe2/MoSe2 band gaps. Ag-MoSe2 contact has the minimum electron SBH of 0.31 eV, where the Pt-WSe2 exhibits a minimum hole SBH of 0.43 eV. Upon inserting a 2D metal-doped metallic mWSe/mMoSe layer between WSe2/MoSe2 layer and metal electrodes, the MIGSs arising from the penetration of metal wave functions into the semiconductor layers can be effectively suppressed, leading to practically negligible SBHs both for electron and hole, and even a vanishing SBH is obtained, suggesting a high carrier injection efficiency. The achieved quasi-Ohmic contact characteristics provide a universal design paradigm for high-performance TMDC-based devices requiring ultralow contact resistance.

Abstract: Novel wide bandgap ZnO, BeO and ZnBeO materials have recently gained considerable interest due to their stellar optoelectronic properties. These semiconductors are being used in developing high-resolution flexible transparent nanoelectronics/photonics and achieving high-power radio frequency modules for sensors/biosensors, photodetectors/solar cells, resistive random-access memory applications. Despite earlier evidence of attaining p-type wz ZnO with N doping, the problem persists to accomplish reproducible p-type conductivity. This issue is linked to charge compensation by intrinsic donors and/ or background impurities. In ZnO : Al (Li), the vibrational features by infrared and Raman spectroscopy have ascribed the presence of isolated AlZn(LiZn) defects; nearest neighbor (NN) [AlZn-NO] pairs; and 2nd NN [AlZn-O-LiZn;VZn-O-LiZn] complexes. However, no firm identification has been established. By integrating accurate perturbation models in a realistic Green’s function method, we have meticulously simulated impurity vibrational modes of AlZn (LiZn) and their bonding to form complexes with dopants as well as intrinsic defects. We strongly feel that these phonon features in doped ZnO will encourage spectroscopists to perform similar measurements to check our theoretical conjectures.

Abstract: This study investigates the synthesis of shape-controlled titanium dioxide (TiO₂) nanoparticles via a hydrothermal method, examining the influence of pH variation (8, 10, 12, and 14) and subsequent thermal treatments (200°C and 230°C) on phase transitions and morphological transformations. The resulting TiO₂ nanostructures—including nanorods, nanotubes, nanoflowers, elongated bipyramids, and irregular flower-like assemblies—undergo phase transitions from anatase to brookite. Their photocatalytic performance is assessed for aqueous pollutant degradation and NOx abatement. TiO₂ synthesized at lower pH (8-10), exhibiting anatase-phase nanotubular and elongated bipyramidal morphologies, achieves near-complete photodegradation of phenol, methomyl, and diclofenac in both Milli-Q and stormwater matrices. Conversely, brookite-rich TiO₂ phases, formed at higher pH (12-14), show limited liquid-phase activity but excel in NOx abatement, making them promising candidates for air purification applications. These findings highlight the pivotal role of phase composition and morphology in optimizing photocatalytic performance, offering a strategic approach for the scalable development of efficient TiO₂-based photocatalysts for environmental remediation.

Abstract: Nanotubes (NTs) are nanosized tube-like structured materials made from various substances such as carbon, boron, or silicon. Carbon nanomaterials (CNMs), including carbon nanotubes (CNTs), graphene/graphene oxide (G/GO), and fullerenes have good interatomic interactions and possess special characteristics, exploitable in several applications, because of the presence of sp2 and sp3 bonds. Among NTs, CNTs are the most studied compounds, due to their nonpareil electrical, mechanical, optical and biomedical properties. Moreover, particularly single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) have demonstrated high ability as drug delivery systems and in transporting a wide range of chemicals across membranes and into living cells. Therefore, SWNTs more than other NT-structures, have piqued interest in medicinal applications, such as target delivery, improved imaging, tissue regeneration, medication and gene delivery, providing nanosized devices with higher efficacy and fewer side effects. SWNTs and multi walled CNTs (MWCNTs) have recently gained a great deal of attention for their antibacterial effects. Unfortunately, numerous recent studies have revealed unanticipated toxicities caused by CNTs. However, on these findings, contradictory opinions exist. Moreover, the problem of controlling CNTs-based products has become particularly evident, especially in relation to their high-scale production and the nanosized forms of the carbon constituting them. Important directive rules have been approved over the years, but further research and regulatory measures should be introduced for a safer production and utilization of CNTs. Upon this background, after an overview on CNMs and CNTs, the antimicrobial properties of SWNTs, as well as the most recent in vitro and in vivo studies on their possible toxicity with strategies to limit it have been provided and discussed in this review. Finally, a debate on the regulatory issues has been also included.

Abstract: The rapid advancement of materials science is driving the development of emerging advanced materials such as nanomaterials, composites, biomaterials, and high-performance metals. These materials possess unique properties and offer significant potential for innovative applications across industries. Standardization plays a crucial role in ensuring the reliability, consistency, and comparability of material quality assessments. Although typical material specification standards, which rigidly define allowable characteristic ranges, are well-suited for established materials like steel, they may not be directly applicable to emerging advanced materials due to their novelty and evolving nature. To address this challenge, a distinct approach is required—flexible yet robust testing standards. This paper introduces scenario-based methodologies, a structured approach to developing such standards, with a particular focus on metrological aspects of measurement methods and procedures. Additionally, self-assessment processes aimed at verifying measurement reliability are integrated into the methodology. These methodologies involve defining target materials and their applications, identifying critical material characteristics, specifying appropriate measurement methods and procedures, and promoting adaptable yet reliable guidelines. To maintain relevance with metrological advancements and evolving market demands, testing standards should undergo periodic review and updates. This approach enhances industrial confidence and facilitates market integration.

Abstract:

Bacterial infections remain among the top ten major public health concerns, contributing to a high number incidence of disease and mortality worldwide. This issue has been exacerbated by the rise of multidrug-resistant bacteria (MDRB). Consequently, it is crucial to develop novel antimicrobial strategies, including the use of functional nanoparticles. Gold nanoparticles (GNPs) have emerged as promising candidates due to their unique optical properties, particularly their ability to efficiently convert absorbed light into heat through the photothermal (PT) effect, which can be harnessed for bacteria eradication. In this study, gold nanoshells (GNSs) were synthesized and proposed as photothermal devices to bacteria clearance via PT. First, chitosan was modified with 3-mercaptopropionic acid to introduce sulfur groups, facilitating gold deposition onto chitosan nanoparticle surface. Thiolated chitosan nanoparticles (TCNPs), with a size of 178 nm and spherical morphology were synthesized using the ionic gelation method. The gold shell was subsequently formed via a seed-mediated method, wherein gold seeds were adsorbed onto TCNPs and further grown to form the shell. The resulting TCNP@Au exhibited a photothermal conversion efficiency of 31%, making them a promising photothermal agent for bacterial clearance. Notably, the viability of Escherichia coli was significantly reduced in the presence of TCNP@Au and was almost eradicated upon PT treatment, with viability dropping to 0.3 %. In contrast, TCNP@Au were non-toxic for Staphylococcus aureus. Interestingly, S. aureus exhibited a reduced susceptibility to the PT effect, maintaining a viability of 76 % after the laser irradiation treatment. Despite these results, TCNP@Au demonstrated favorable photothermal properties, presenting a novel nanoplatform for antibacterial applications, particularly against Gram-negative bacteria. However, further investigation is required to optimize the PT-based strategies against Gram-positive bacteria, such as S. aureus.

Abstract: Recent advancements in phototherapy have underscored the need for effective cellular imaging agents that can enhance therapeutic efficacy and precision. Perylene diimide (PDI) dyes, known for their unique optical properties and biocompatibility, have emerged as promising candidates in this domain. This review paper provides a comprehensive analysis of the potential applications of PDI dyes in cellular imaging, specifically within the context of phototherapies. We explore the synthesis of these dyes, their photophysical characteristics, and mechanisms of cellular uptake. Moreover, this review highlights recent studies that demonstrate the effectiveness of PDI dyes in real-time imaging of cellular processes and their synergistic effects in photodynamic therapy (PDT) and photothermal therapy (PTT). By evaluating various experimental approaches and their outcomes, we aim to elucidate the advantages of employing PDI dyes in clinical settings. The findings of this review suggest that perylene diimide dyes are not only capable of enhancing imaging contrast but also optimizing the therapeutic response in targeted phototherapy applications. Ultimately, this paper advocates for further research into the integration of PDI dyes in clinical practice, emphasizing their potential to significantly improve patient outcomes in cancer and other diseases requiring photoactive treatment modalities.

Abstract:

This study investigates the structural, electronic, and optical properties of anisotropic rutile titanium dioxide (TiO2) using density functional theory (DFT). The calculated lattice parameters were found to be a = b = 4.64 ˚A and c = 42.97 ˚A. The generalized gradient approximation (GGA) exchange- correlation functional predicted a bandgap of 1.89 eV, in close agreement with experimental results. A detailed analysis of the density of states (DOS) and projected density of states (PDOS) further validated the accuracy of the computed bandgap. The optical properties were examined through the dielectric function, revealing real and imaginary static dielectric constants of 11.85 and 0.13, respectively. Moreover, the absorption and conductivity spectra exhibited promising behavior in the UV-visible range, indicating strong potential for water remediation and photocatalytic applications. Overall, the electronic and optical characteristics of TiO2 suggest its viability as an effective material for environmental and energy-related applications.

Abstract: Carbon dots (CDs) are metal-free carbon-based nanoparticles. They possess excellent photoluminescent properties, various physical properties, good chemical stability, high water solubility, high biocompatibility, and tunable surface functionalities, suitable for biomedical applications. Their properties are subject to synthetic conditions such as pH, reaction time, temperature, precursor, and solvent. Until now a large amount of articles on synthesis and biomedical applications of CDs using their photoluminescent properties have been reported. However, their researches on magnetic properties and especially, diamagnetic chemical exchange saturation transfer (diaCEST) in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are very poor. The diaCEST MRI contrast agents are based on exchangeable protons of materials with bulk water protons and thus, different from conventional MRI contrast agents which are based on enhancements of proton spin relaxations of bulk water and tissue. In this review, various syntheses, characterizations, magnetic properties, and potential applications of CDs as diaCEST MRI contrast agents are reviewed. Finally, future perspectives of CDs as the next generation diaCEST MRI contrast agents are discussed.

Abstract: Fungal diseases pose a significant threat to global agriculture, leading to substantial crop losses and endangering food security worldwide. Conventional chemical fungicides, while effective, are increasingly criticized for their detrimental environmental impacts, including soil degradation, water contamination, and the disruption of non-target organisms. Additionally, the overuse of these fungicides has accelerated the emergence of resistant fungal strains, further challenging disease management strategies. In response to these issues, bio-nanofungicides and nano-biofungicides have emerged as a cutting-edge solution, combining biocompatibility, environmental safety, and enhanced efficacy. These advanced formulations integrate bio-based agents, such as microbial metabolites or plant extracts, with nanotechnology to improve their stability, controlled release, and targeted delivery. Nanoparticles such as chitosan, silica, and silver have been extensively studied for their ability to encapsulate bioactive compounds, enhancing their antifungal activity while minimizing environmental residues. Recent studies have demonstrated nano-based fungicides' potential to address critical gaps in sustainable agriculture, with promising applications in integrated pest management systems. Here, we summarize the las advances in the development of bio-nanofungicides and nano-biofungicides and analyzed the main differences between them. I addition, challenges such as large-scale production, regulatory approval, and comprehensive risk assessments remain are discussed.

Abstract: Background: Cancer remains one of the leading causes of mortality worldwide, while natural antioxidants have emerged as promising therapeutic agents in cancer treatment. Although fucoidan from brown algae shows anticancer potential, its efficacy is limited by bioavailability challenges, and the synergistic effects of combining it with gold nano-particles remain unexplored. Methods: Fucoidan was extracted from Sargassum cinereum and Turbinaria decurrens using acid precipitation. Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) were manufactured by a green technique that employed fucoidan as both a reducing and stabilizing agent. The nanoparticles were analyzed utilizing UV-Vis spectroscopy, FTIR, TEM, XRD, and zeta potential assessment. Antioxidant activities were evaluated utilizing DPPH and FRAP assays. Cytotoxicity was assessed against HepG2, THP-1, and BNL cells utilizing MTT and SRB tests. Flow cytometry was utilized for cell cycle analysis, and molecular docking was applied to examine interactions with cancer-associated proteins. Results: T. decurrens yielded higher fucoidan extraction (235.9 mg/g dry weight) and demonstrated superior antioxidant activity in Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP) (9.21 μg Trolox Equivalents /mg) and 2, 2-Diphenyl-1-Picryl-Hydrazyl-Hydrate (DPPH) (4.48 μg Trolox Equivalents /mg) assays compared to S. cinereum. Molecular docking revealed strong binding of fucoidan to cancer-related proteins, particularly COX-2 (-7.1 kcal/mol) and TERT (-5.4 kcal/mol), while the fucoidan-gold nanoparticle complex (F-AuNPs) showed enhanced cellular uptake and improved cytotoxicity against HepG2 cells (IC50: 392.81 μg/mL and 459.75 μg/mL for S. cinereum and T. decurrens formulations, respectively). Conclusions: These findings suggest a promising synergistic approach for enhancing fucoidan-gold nanoparticle therapeutic potential in cancer treatment through combined in vitro and in silico analyses.

Abstract: A series of newly-developed Ni/SBA-15 catalysts were synthesised by combining strong electrostatic adsorption (SEA) of [Ni(En)3 ]2+ (En = ethylenediamine), [Ni(NH3)6] 2+ and [Ni(EDTA)] 2- complexes, respectively, and engineered SBA-15 support, or, in other words, by adopting Charge Enhanced Dry Impregnation (CEDI), to produce highly active catalysts with very small nickel particles, resistant to carbon deposition, sintering and deactivation phenomena associated with nickel based catalysts in dry reforming of methane (DRM). In parallel, other Ni/SBA-15 catalysts were prepared by conventional incipient wetness impregnation method with [Ni(H2O)6]2+ complex and used as the reference catalysts. TEM, wide-angle XRD, EDX, TGA results and temperature programmed experiments confirmed that the catalyst’s preparation method has a strong impact on the size of the generated nickel particles and the amount of Ni deposited, which in turn were responsible for the catalytic activity and coke resistance. SEA on SBA-15 deposits from 4.8 wt% to 6.1 wt% Ni, depending on the complex used, while the DI deposits only 3% wt of Ni. The size of resulting Ni particles is between 3 and 8 nm for the unwashed SEA samples. For the DI unwashed samples, the size is significantly bigger, at 20 – 50 nm. For the SEA washed samples before calcination, i.e., those synthesised by using [Ni(NH3)6] 2+ and [Ni(En)3 ]2+ complexes, the Ni particles size is less than 1 nm. For these catalyst’s samples, only small amount of carbon was deposited during the DRM reaction as confirmed by TGA results at 0.08 and 0.13 %.

Abstract: Although polyethylene is widely used in electrical insulation, it does not possess dielectric properties. It is therefore desirable to develop insulation materials with excellent dielectric properties. In this study, low density polyethylene (LDPE) was used as a matrix resin, while MgO, wollastonite, and montmorillonite (MMT) were employed as inorganic nano-additives. Three composites were prepared using the boiling–melt blending approach. Power frequency breakdown tests were performed on the original LDPE and on the prepared nanoparticle/LDPE composites. Upon combination with the Weibull distribution, the breakdown test results revealed that the addition of these nano-additive particles to the LDPE matrix decreased the breakdown field strength of the material. The highest breakdown field strength for the nano-MgO/LDPE composite was obtained using a MgO loading of 0.5%. Notably, the obtained value was 1.8% higher than that of the pure LDPE. In addition, the highest breakdown field strength for the nano-wollastonite/LDPE composite was obtained using a wollastonite loading of 1% (7.48% higher than that of pure LDPE). Similarly, the highest breakdown field strength of the nano-MMT/LDPE composite was obtained using an MMT loading of 3%, giving a value that was 6.67% higher than that of the pure LDPE.

Abstract: Targeted nanomaterials are at the forefront of advancements in nanomedicine due to their unique and versatile properties. These include nanoscale size, shape, surface chemistry, mechanical flexibility, fluorescence, optical behaviour, magnetic, and electronic characteristics as well as biocompatibility and biodegradability. These attributes enable their application across diverse fields such as drug delivery, bioimaging, sensing, disease diagnostics, tissue engineering, cosmetics, and electronics. This review explores the fundamental characteristics of nanomaterials and emphasize their importance into clinical applications. It further delves into methodologies for nanoparticles programming alongside discussions on clinical trials and case studies. We discussed some of promising nanomaterials such as polymeric nanoparticles, carbon-based nanoparticles and metallic nanoparticles with their role in biomedical applications. The review underscores significant advancements in translating nanomaterials into clinical applications and highlight the potential of these innovative approaches in revolutionizing the medical field.

Abstract: Here a graphene-based photodetectors with ability to integrate with various energy thermoelectric, electromagnetic and piezoelectric devices is reported. The fabrication of the proposed device is based on magnetic field assisted pulsed laser deposition (MFPLD) for growth of few layers graphene and intercalated chemical vapor deposition (CVD) graphene grown following by a wet transfer of the layers to the electrode surface. The key influential parameter in the graphene growth such as density and smoothness of surface, as well as the plasma plume particles charge type and velocity have been optimized to obtain the best quality of the graphene and consequently improve the performance of the device. For the electrical contacts a tapered aluminum microelectrode (TAM) has been used to improve the detection of photogenerated carriers during the illumination. The results reveal the acceptable wide band response, leading to a responsivity of up to 0.13 AW-1, quantum efficiency of 9.5% and room temperature specific detectivity of 1.27x10+7 Jones at wavelength of 1700 nm.

Abstract: Detecting low nitrogen dioxide concentrations (NO₂) is crucial for environmental monitoring and health protection. In this paper, we report the synergistic effect of decorating nitrogen-doped reduced graphene oxide (N-rGO) with nickel oxide (NiO) nanoparticles for developing highly selective and sensitive chemiresistive NO₂ gas sensors. The N-rGO/NiO sensor was synthesized straightforwardly, ensuring uniform decoration of NiO nanoparticles on the N-rGO surface. Comprehensive characterization using SEM, TEM, XRD, and Raman spectroscopy confirmed the successful integration of NiO nanoparticles with N-rGO and revealed key structural and morphological features contributing to its enhanced sensing performance. As a result. Compared to the N-rGO, the NiO/N-rGO nanohybrids exhibit a boosted response of 5 orders of magnitude towards low concentrations of NO2 (< 1 ppm) at 100 °C. Moreover, the present device has an outstanding performance, high sensitivity, and low limit of detection (< 1 ppb). The findings pave the way for integrating these sensors into advanced applications, including environmental monitoring and IoT-enabled air quality management systems.