Abstract: Background: The interaction between sex, APOE ε4 status, and clinical progression in Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) remains a subject of debate. While females are often considered at higher risk for AD, the underlying structural neuroanatomical trajectories and how they are modulated by genotype are not fully elucidated. This study aims to evaluate how sex and the APOE ε4 genotype interact to influence longitudinal brain atrophy across three clinical groups. Methods: We analyzed longitudinal data from 2400 participants from the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI), stratified by clinical group (i.e., cognitively normal, mild cognitive impairment, and AD), sex, and APOE ε4 carrier status. Using Type III Sum of Squares ANCOVA, we modeled the longitudinal variation in brain volume, controlling for baseline brain volume, and baseline severity of neurocognitive impairment and age at entry. Results: While main effects of sex and APOE genotype were not significant, the triple interaction (APOE * Sex * Clinical Group) was marginally significant (p = .051). Post-hoc analysis revealed a distinct pattern of structural dimorphism within the AD cohort among APOE ε4-negative individuals with females exhibiting significantly greater structural preservation compared to males (Mean difference = 11.32, p = .051). Among APOE ε4 carriers, atrophy trajectories for males and females were statistically indistinguishable (p = .922), suggesting that the ε4 allele exerts a dominant neurodegenerative influence that overrides sex-specific physiological differences. Conclusion: These findings highlight the importance of jointly considering biological sex and APOE ε4 status to improve the characterization of Alzheimer's disease heterogeneity and support precision medicine approaches.

Abstract: The removal of five neonicotinoid insecticides, acetamiprid (ACE), chlothianidin (CLO), imidacloprid (IMI), thiacloprid (THC), and thiamethoxam (THM), was explored using various commercial ultrafiltration (UF) and nanofiltration (NF) membranes. Several modification techniques have also been implemented for one UF membrane, including immersion in hot water, sodium hydroxide, and ethanol solutions, as well as polymerization with monomers such as polyethyleneimine (PEI) and trimesoyl chloride (TMC), to improve micropollutant retention while maintaining adequate permeability. The results show that only immersion in ethanol (60% solution or absolute ethanol) was a suitable immersion technique for improving membrane performance. The use of various reagents and conditions for the membrane surface modification via polymerization yielded the best results, with the sequential application of PEI+TMC+60°C followed by immersion in glycerol solution (GLY) being the most efficient. Once the optimal modification procedure was established, these membranes were tested with real water matrices (two secondary effluents from wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) and a surface water sample) in which the neonicotinoids were dissolved. The modified UF membrane showed improved retention levels compared with commercial UF and NF membranes, demonstrating greater efficiency in retaining neonicotinoids under real water conditions. Therefore, the proposed modification process is a promising alternative to commercial membranes for removing micropollutants from urban wastewater.

Abstract: Renewable energy sources are expanding rapidly, with wind energy representing one of the fastest-growing sectors. In parallel, digital twins are transforming structural monitoring and inspection by enabling near real-time structural assessment. However, the high computational cost associated with high-fidelity numerical models requires reduced-order or surrogate modelling strategies. Within this context, composite laminate thickness plays a critical role in wind turbine blade design and assessment. In this study, a computational fluid dynamics (CFD)-based numerical model developed in ANSYS was employed to predict von Mises stresses in a three-dimensional wind turbine blade geometry derived from the Carbo4Power project. The numerical results were validated against published literature, enabling identification of a thickness–stress relationship. This foundational analysis supports the development of reduced-order models suitable for digital twin applications in wind turbine blade structural assessment.

Abstract: The report presents the results of broadband dielectric spectroscopy (BDS) studies in bulk nanocolloids: E7 liquid crystalline (LC) mixture plus C₆₀ fullerene nanoparticles. BDS spectra for 260 temperatures from the isotropic liquid (I) phase at ~360K to the nematic (N) phase at the glass temperature T_g~220K was tested. The analysis focused on pretransitional critical-like features and complex glassy dynamics, highlighting their interplay and dominance. This is associated with pretransitional fluctuations, which impact the nematic phase even 90 K below the I-N transition. On approaching T_g, strong previtreous changes detected via dielectric constant and the loss curve maximum appear, starting at T_g+30K. The critical-like behavior on T→T_g appears explicitly also for the parameter describing the distribution of relaxation times. For the 3 main relaxation times in the long-range nematic phase, the optimal portrayal via the new Critical & Activated equation is evidenced. The derivative-based test of coupling/decoupling between translational and orientational processes reveals strong decoupling with the fractional exponent F< 1 below the I-N transition and related to F< 1 above T_g. Notable is the permanent ‘parallel’ orientation of LC molecules by C₆₀ fullerene nanoparticles, which can be significant for applications.

Abstract: Taste supports survival by helping animals identify useful nutrients and avoid harmful excess. Sodium is essential for extracellular fluid balance, osmotic regulation, nerve transmission, muscle contraction, and nutrient transport, but it is continually lost and must be replaced through diet. This review proposes the Sodium Priority Hypothesis: sodium is a primary nutritional target whose consumption is enabled by converging sensory mechanisms. Sodium chloride provides the dominant route to pure saltiness, while sodium-linked umami, bitterness suppression, and taste-mixture modulation may further support sodium acquisition and food acceptance. Potassium provides an important contrast because it is essential but has weaker salty quality, bitter or metallic side notes, and does not reproduce sodium’s bitterness-suppressing effect in model savory systems. By linking sodium detection, sodium-linked umami, bitterness suppression, and food-mixture modulation with appetite and potential pre-ingestive or post-ingestive regulation, the hypothesis extends the taste-nutrition interface to sodium acquisition. The hypothesis does not reject umami as a protein-related signal, but proposes that sodium-linked umami may have dual relevance for protein food recognition and sodium acquisition. This framework generates testable predictions and may inform sodium reduction, food reformulation, and dietary guidance.

Abstract: The Upper Rhine Graben (URG) has been a key area for subsurface energy activities for decades, with a focus on hydrocarbons during the mid- to late 1900s and a gradual shift toward energy transition applications such as geothermal energy and, potentially in the future, underground hydrogen storage (UHS). This study focuses on the northern URG, where legacy hydrocarbon fields and saline aquifers provide suitable subsurface structures and infrastructure for assessing the feasibility of UHS, although data coverage varies and remains limited in some areas. Some of these were converted into underground gas storage (UGS) in past and are still in use, providing operational experience. The aim is to use data from well-understood sites to forecast UHS scenarios and assess the suitability for locations with similar geological settings. Two UGS sites, Stockstadt and Hähnlein were used as analogue fields due to their comprehensive production and storage datasets to investigate their potential for future UHS. A structural model was developed using well and seismic data, followed by dynamic simulation to investigate flow behaviour under shallow reservoir conditions (depth of 300–500 m and temperature of ~29 °C) in a porous reservoir. The model was calibrated through history matching of both earlier production and UGS phases to capture aquifer dimensions and their role in pressure support and recovery, which is particularly important in this region due to the presence of an active aquifer. Based on this validated model, two hypothetical UHS scenarios were simulated using different working gas (WG) compositions: a low-H2 case (5% H2 and 95% CH4) and a pure-H2 case, while the remaining natural gas in the reservoir was considered as cushion gas (CG). The simulation results highlight the high mobility and low viscosity of hydrogen, as the pure-H2 case shows sharper production peaks, faster decline, and increased water production compared to the low-H2 case. In contrast, the CH4-rich WG provides a more stable flow behaviour and smoother production response. Over successive cycles, the hydrogen fraction in the produced gas increases, indicating the gradual establishment of the WG zone. Based on the analogue, the potential of the nearby old gas fields was assessed using map-based estimation with Monte Carlo simulation, which indicated promising conditions for UHS development.

Abstract: Rapid growth in artificial intelligence, machine learning, and high-performance computing has substantially increased data centre rack power densities, resulting in higher heat generation and more demanding cooling requirements. As water remains widely used in many cooling systems, understanding the relationship between cooling technologies and water consumption is essential for improving cooling efficiency and sustainability. This paper presents a survey of reported water usage effectiveness (WUE) across 83 data centre entries, providing a combined dataset that links WUE with and cooling categories. The reported data shows that 23 of these data centres exceed 0.4 L/kWh, which is a sustainability target specified by the Climate Neutral Data Centre Pact for new data centres. Dry facilities employing closed-loop liquid cooling require essentially no water, while evaporative systems typically report water usage effectiveness values up to 2.5 L/kWh. WUE is determined by heat rejected through evaporative cooling towers, which is driven by heat removed from servers and transferred to the facility cooling system. One-dimensional heat transfer models are developed to provide heat transfer coefficients for different cooling mechanisms widely used for cooling servers within data centres, including air cooling, single-phase immersion cooling, direct liquid cooling, and two-phase immersion cooling. While air cooling with a low heat transfer coefficient is widely used in small-scale data centres, direct liquid and two-phase immersion cooling provide heat transfer coefficient with three orders of magnitude higher and are increasingly deployed in high-density facilities, offering a viable route to near-zero water consumption in both new and retrofitted installations. An analysis for indicative WUE based on cooling mechanisms.

Abstract: Perpetual futures (often called perpetual swaps) are the dominant crypto-derivatives instrument. They replicate the economic exposure of a futures contract without an expiry date. They replace maturity-based convergence with a funding mechanism that transfers cash flows between longs and shorts, typically every eight hours. This paper explains how perpetuals evolved from early proposals for non-maturing futures into a standardized crypto market instrument, and why key design choices changed over time. It synthesizes recent theoretical and empirical research on funding design, pricing, and arbitrage intuition, market microstructure, liquidation risk, and regulation. Finally, this study proposes a research agenda organized around funding design, constrained arbitrage, transparency, decentralized exchange design, policy, and legal classification, because recent U.S. and EU developments show that the same economic structure may be characterized as a futures contract, swap, CFD-type instrument, or other derivative depending on statutory definitions, venue design, and supervisory interpretation. This paper proposes the following definition: a cryptocurrency perpetual is an open-ended, margin-based derivative that gives synthetic long or short exposure to an underlying crypto asset and replaces expiry-based settlement with periodic funding payments that anchor the contract price to a reference spot price.

Abstract: Additively manufactured components require machining of functional surfaces to meet geometric requirements. Due to low stiffness and non-nominal as-built geometry, they are susceptible to milling-induced shape deviations. This paper presents a hybrid process simulation for predicting shape errors in compliant metallic laser powder bed fusion components. The method combines real-geometry-based technological NC simulation, quasi-static force prediction, finite element-based structural response simulation, and surface reconstruction between roughing and finishing to enable multistage operation. The approach is validated for linear and non-linear toolpaths with varying immersion angles and compliance conditions. The results show reproduced force profiles, while magnitude deviations highlight the relevance of deformation-dependent engagement feedback in high-compliance regions. An analytical back-calculation based on the effective engagement cross-section reveals that accounting for deflection-induced engagement reduction reduces force deviations. During roughing, maximum shape errors for linear and non-linear toolpaths are overestimated by 4–5 %, and critical high-error regions are identified. The reconstructed intermediate geometry after roughing is essential for finishing, since neglecting geometry feedback underestimates finishing forces. With geometry feedback, the maximum finishing shape error is predicted as 0.090 mm, while the measured value is 0.086 mm. The simulation captures dominant quasi-static shape-error regimes and supports process-chain-oriented prediction in additive-subtractive manufacturing.

Abstract: Household plastic waste management is increasingly shaped by two policy pressures that are not fully captured by conventional closed-loop supply chain design models: the need to internalize carbon emissions and the need to distribute local waste-management burdens fairly across regions. This study extends the decentralized closed-loop supply chain framework to incorporate carbon taxation and regional cost-equity standards into a manufacturer-public-sector bilevel model. The manufacturer chooses virgin-resource purchases, recycled plastic waste-bale purchases, and product shipments, while local public sectors manage collection, transfer, disposal, and interregional waste flows. Carbon costs are assigned separately to manufacturer activities and public-sector activities to avoid double counting. Regional equity is modeled as a proportional bound on deviations from the average disposal burden, converting the local follower system into a regulated decentralized equilibrium. We reformulate the public-sector optimality conditions as an updated mathematical program with equilibrium constraints and use a two-stage computational design: a small-scale continuous MPEC/KKT validation solved with open-source SciPy routines, followed by reproducible normalized policy simulations calibrated to the operational ranges reported in the source study. The results show that carbon taxation increases the real recycling rate from 25.02% to 28.09% before the recycled-bale supply capacity becomes binding, reducing system emissions by approximately 2.73%. At a carbon tax of 30 USD/tCO2, tightening the regional equity threshold from 25% to 5% reduces the standard deviation of regional waste-management costs by approximately 26.1% and slightly increases the real recycling rate. The findings suggest that carbon taxation and equity standards are complementary: carbon pricing strengthens demand for recycled bales, while equity rules redirect recycling efforts toward high-burden regions. The study contributes a sustainability-oriented extension of decentralized plastic waste supply chain design and offers policy guidance for balancing recycling, emissions reduction, and regional fairness.

Abstract: Background. The dominant clinical manifestation of aging is not mortality but the progressive depletion of functional reserve—the surplus physiological capacity separating independent function from disability. Existing geroscience frameworks describe the molecular processes of aging in extraordinary detail yet offer the point-of-care clinician little basis for prioritizing targets. Objective. To reframe functional aging as a control-systems problem and to define the minimum set of physiological capacities whose preservation maintains functional reserve. Framework. Aging is modeled as progressive instability within a coupled, bidirectional mitochondrial–epigenetic regulatory axis. Candidate capacities were evaluated against three operational criteria—independence, necessity, and modifiability. Results. Five capacities satisfy these criteria: bioenergetic capacity, endocrine signaling integrity, molecular quality control, adaptive (hormetic) stress response, and neuro-autonomic regulation. Each protects the central axis; together they govern the trajectory of functional reserve. Modifiable interventions are mapped onto these capacities in a separate operational layer. Conclusions. The framework yields a causally ordered, clinically actionable, and falsifiable architecture in which functional reserve is the primary therapeutic target and lifespan a downstream consequence. It is testable against existing longitudinal cohorts without new data collection.

Abstract: The construction industry is still one of the most dangerous industries around the world, and the safety management process within it continues to be highly hierarchical and designed by engineers, regulators, and site managers rather than those workers whose exposure to risks is the highest. In this paper, I argue that the asymmetry in the processes of design of safety is systemic and results from the intersection of hierarchy, power-distance of the nation, and subcontracting of multi-level nature which reduce both accountability and voice of the workers. Using the theoretical framework consisting of the analysis of the safety-voice, power distance, and STAMP literature in addition to structural analysis of the construction sector of Istanbul, this paper shows that the mechanisms of law, contract, and culture prevent the processes of feedback which are important for resilience-oriented safety management. Based on the thresholds of Turkish labor laws for union recognition, subcontracting data, and a case of worker protest on the construction of Istanbul’s largest infrastructure project, there are three mechanisms of exclusion identified in this paper: legal threshold of representation that excludes construction workers structurally, subcontracting chains that diffuse responsibility for safety results from workers who bear the risk, and organizational hierarchy that discourages safety voice long before reaching any channel. There is a list of design principles that re-integrate workers’ feedback into safety control structure suggested in this paper as a contribution to resilience engineering practice.

Abstract: Background: Dengue has expanded rapidly beyond traditional tropical and subtropical regions, driven by climate change, urbanization, population mobility, and the spread of competent Aedes vectors. Vaccination is an increasingly important component of dengue prevention, but development has been complicated by four viral serotypes, antibody-dependent enhancement, variable baseline serostatus, and the need for balanced and durable tetravalent immunity. Methods: We conducted a narrative review of PubMed/MEDLINE, Google Scholar, ClinicalTrials.gov, and relevant public health and regulatory sources. Evidence on dengue epidemiology, immunopathogenesis, licensed vaccines, advanced candidates, efficacy, immunogenicity, safety, durability, and implementation was critically evaluated. Priority was given to randomized trials, long-term follow-up studies, regulatory assessments, and surveillance data. Evidence was synthesized descriptively without formal meta-analysis or risk-of-bias assessment. Results: CYD-TDV was the first licensed dengue vaccine but is restricted to individuals with documented previous infection because seronegative recipients may experience an increased risk of severe dengue. TAK-003 provides protection against symptomatic dengue and hospitalization in both seropositive and seronegative individuals and can be administered without mandatory prevaccination screening, although efficacy varies by serotype. Butantan-DV offers a promising single-dose strategy, but broader use requires additional long-term safety, effectiveness, and serotype-specific data. Inactivated, DNA, viral-vectored, virus-like particle, and mRNA vaccines remain investigational. Conclusion: Dengue vaccination should be integrated with surveillance, vector control, clinical preparedness, and risk communication. Population-based vaccination is most appropriate in high-transmission settings, whereas selective, risk-based strategies are preferable in temperate regions. Continued pharmacovigilance and effectiveness monitoring are essential to guide safe and equitable implementation.

Abstract: Background: Acute deep vein thrombosis (DVT) remains a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Although several international societies have published evidence-based clinical practice guidelines, several important differences persist. This review compares contemporary international guidelines to identify areas of consensus, controversy, and future research priorities. Methods: A narrative comparative review was conducted using the most recent evidence-based international guidelines. Recommendations were compared across diagnostic evaluation, anticoagulant selection, treatment duration, outpatient management, catheter-directed interventions, compression therapy, special populations, and pediatric venous thromboembolism. Results: All guidelines recommend structured diagnostic algorithms integrating clinical pretest probability, D-dimer testing, and compression ultrasonography, while favoring direct oral anticoagulants as first-line therapy for most patients. Major differences remain regarding the management of isolated distal DVT, optimal duration of anticoagulation, indications for catheter-directed thrombolysis, use of compression therapy, and treatment of special populations, including patients with cancer, antiphospholipid syndrome, obesity, pregnancy, and pediatric DVT. These variations largely reflect differences in evidence interpretation, healthcare resources, regional epidemiology, and implementation strategies rather than fundamental disagreement. Persistent evidence gaps include pediatric DVT, isolated distal DVT, optimal duration of secondary prevention, and patient selection for endovascular therapies. Conclusions: Contemporary international DVT guidelines demonstrate substantial agreement regarding core management principles but differ in several clinically important areas where evidence remains limited. Future harmonization will require high-quality randomized studies, broader international collaboration, and integration of emerging precision medicine approaches, including artificial intelligence, and novel anticoagulant therapies, to support globally applicable, evidence-based DVT management.

Abstract: The occurrence of viral zoonotic spillover (the transmission of viruses from animals to humans) has attracted worldwide attention due to mounting concerns regarding viral threats such as avian influenza, Hendra, monkeypox, Nipah and bat coronaviruses. It is evident that these events deviate significantly from natural occurrences, being the conflation of ecological, environmental and social factors that are profoundly altering the boundaries between the animal and human domains. Consequently, in order to comprehend both the contemporary and prospective drivers of zoonotic viral spillover, a coordinated, comprehensive global One Health response is essential. The objective of this review is to analyse prevalent pathways of transmission between animal reservoirs and human populations. This examination involves the analysis of historical cases, including those of SARS and Ebola, as well as recent occurrences, such as the global pandemic of SARS-CoV-2 (Covid-19). The objective of this review is to comprehend the fundamental mechanisms of cross-species transmission. The development of effective strategies to mitigate the emergence of zoonotic viruses and prevent future pandemics is contingent on a robust understanding of these mechanisms. This analysis is key to identifying pandemic pathogens and preventing the spread of zoonotic viruses. In conclusion, the review provides a thorough evaluation of current global strategies to prevent the spread of zoonotic viruses, highlighting gaps in our understanding and areas for further research.

Abstract: To address seed contamination, narrow-row mechanized cutting difficulties, and potential damage to maternal plants in muddy paddy fields during hybrid rice seed production, a walk-behind self-propelled hybrid rice male parent pulverizing and cutting machine was designed. The machine primarily consists of three key structures: a key cutting device, a gravity-free crop dividing device, and a crawler walking mechanism. The cutting device features an innovative mechanism where main-shaft rotation drives flail blades into inertial autorotation, while a stopper bar physically constrains their maximum swing amplitude to guarantee a 500 mm working width. Crucially, the gravity-free crop dividing device safely pushes aside adjacent maternal plants to effectively prevent accidental mechanical injury. A flexible plant model and a kinematic model were established using DEM software EDEM. A three-factor, three-level orthogonal experiment indicated the primary order of influence on the male parent cutting rate is: forward speed > flail blade rotational speed > blade arrangement. The optimal simulation parameters were a 0.4 m/s forward speed, a 1700 r/min blade rotational speed, and a straight-curved blade arrangement, yielding a simulated cutting rate of 97.60%. Furthermore, field tests demonstrated that under these optimal parameters, influenced by complex paddy conditions and natural plant lodging, the actual average cutting rate was 91.39%. The machine exhibited excellent passability and pulverizing performance, thoroughly satisfying the requirements of agronomic and agricultural machinery integration.

Abstract: Digital money has transformed from a technological experiment into a central concern of monetary economics, financial regulation, and public policy. Despite rapid growth in cryptocurrencies, stablecoins, central bank digital currencies (CBDCs), and tokenized deposits, the literature remains fragmented across disciplines, with limited cross-cutting synthesis. This article adopts a scoping–integrative review methodology, combining systematic database searches across Scopus, Web of Science, BIS, IMF, FSB, ECB, and national central-bank repositories (2008–2026) with integrative synthesis of academic, policy, and regulatory sources following PRISMA-ScR reporting principles. The review identifies three competing trust models underpinning digital money: algorithmic consensus (cryptocurrencies), private reserve backing (stablecoins), and sovereign monetary authority (CBDCs and tokenized deposits). The proposed Digital Money Ecosystem Taxonomy (DMET) classifies digital money instruments across fourteen institutional, governance, technological, monetary, and regulatory dimensions, enabling systematic comparison of cryptocurrencies, stablecoins, CBDCs, and tokenized deposits. Future monetary systems will be hybrid, combining public and private digital money within layered governance arrangements. Interoperability, privacy, programmability, and cross-border governance represent the most critical unresolved policy and research challenges.

Abstract: This study investigates the impact of fintech on the monetary policy dynamics of the four major payment channels of banks in Nigeria, namely the automated teller machine (ATM), mobile payment (MOBPAY), web payment (WEBPAY), and Point-of-Sale (POS), from 2012 to 2025. The paper employs the Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) bounds testing approach to examine the relationships between the variables, whilst conducting a robustness check using dynamic ordinary least squares (DOLS). The study shows that POS transaction values have a positive and statistically significant impact on both the monetary policy rate (MPR) and the treasury bill rate (TBR). The findings also indicate that the savings deposit rate (SDR) increases both the MPR and the TBR, whereas the maximum lending rate (MLR) does not affect these policy rates. Mobile payments lead to significantly lower treasury bill and monetary policy rates. These findings empirically affirm that fintech channels have expanded over the years, driven by the central bank’s cashless policy and banks’ response to the introduction of fintech start-ups into the financial system. Thus, fintech channels are important determinants of monetary policy transmission, justifying the need for the monetary authority to examine channel-specific sensitivities to its effectiveness in Nigeria’s fast-growing digital payment ecosystem.

Abstract: The treatment of Ce(OH)₄ in thionyl chloride and dimethoxyethane (DME) resulted in the formation of a highly unstable red Ce(IV) complex with the composition [CeCl₄(DME)₂] (1). From the reaction of 1 with the tripodal Kläui ligand η⁵-cyclopentadienyltris(dimethylphosphonato)cobaltate(III), [Co(η⁵-C₅H₅){P(O)(OMe)₂}₃]– (L_OMe), the two new cerium(III) complexes [Ce(L_OMe)₂(H₂O)₂]Cl·2.5H₂O (2), 1D-[Ce(μ-Cl)(L_OMe)(H₂O)₃]Cl (3) and the cerium(IV) complex [CeCl₂(L_OMe)₂]·acetone (4) were obtained and structurally characterized. The complexes 3 and 4 are the first cerium complexes featuring the L_OMe ligand together with chlorido ligands. Due to the potential exchange of the chloride counterions and ligands in 2 - 4, these complexes could serve as precursors in molecular cerium coordination chemistry. The assigned cerium oxidation states are supported by the bond valence sum (BVS) method. The ³¹P-NMR spectra with d(³¹P) = 160.20 ppm (2) and 159.43 ppm (3) are diagnostic of cerium(III).

Abstract: Sustainable and demand-adaptive railway operation requires frameworks capable of aligning service capacity with time-varying demand while ensuring safe, operationally feasible, and energy-efficient service. This paper proposes an integrated control-and-planning framework for modular pod-based railway operation based on virtual coupling. The framework combines a convoy control layer, which ensures safe and dynamically feasible virtually coupled operation, with a planning layer formulated as a mixed-integer linear programming (MILP) model for daily service allocation and convoy sizing. This hierarchical automation architecture coordinates real-time convoy control with service-level planning to adapt capacity to passenger demand. The proposed methodology is evaluated through comparative simulations under peak-hour, shoulder-period, and off-peak demand scenarios, as well as over a daily schedule of 20 services. Its performance is compared with a conventional fixed-composition diesel-electric multiple unit (DEMU)-based operation. Results show that the pod-based configuration increases energy consumption under peak-hour conditions, remains comparable during shoulder periods, and substantially reduces energy consumption in off-peak operation, achieving a 57% saving in that regime. At the daily level, total energy consumption decreases from 3864 kWh to 3075 kWh, corresponding to a 20% reduction. These findings indicate that the main value of the proposed framework lies in transforming convoy composition into a demand-adaptive operational variable, thereby improving energy performance at the daily system level while preserving the safe and dynamically feasible operation of virtually coupled pod formations.