Abstract: Metformin, a cornerstone treatment for type 2 diabetes, has recently emerged as a multifunctional therapeutic agent with applications extending far beyond glycemic control. This mini-review explores its promising roles within extracellular matrix (ECM)-based three-dimensional (3D) cell culture models, which closely mimic the in vivo cellular microenvironment. Through modulation of key pathways—including AMPK activation, inhibition of TGF-β signaling, suppression of aerobic glycolysis, and regulation of microRNAs—metformin exerts profound effects on ECM remodeling, fibrosis attenuation, and tumor progression. Furthermore, its integration into ECM-inspired drug delivery systems and regenerative scaffolds has shown great potential in applications such as diabetic wound healing, bone repair, and implant integration. Collectively, current findings highlight metformin as a versatile agent capable of modulating ECM biology in disease-specific 3D systems, paving the way for innovative therapeutic strategies in oncology, metabolic disorders, and tissue engineering.

Abstract: Background/Objectives: The lingual foramina of the mandible serve as passageways for arterial branches that are susceptible to injury during surgical procedures, potentially leading to varying degrees of hemorrhage. The objective of the present study was to determine the relative risk of bleeding associated with these foramina. Methods: The study examined the number, diameter, and spatial relationship of lingual foramina to the genial tubercle, alveolar process, and alveolar crest in dry mandibles. Stainless steel wire threads and digimatic caliper measurements were utilized. Cluster analysis was employed for the classification of foramina into distinct spatial groups. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to compare mean values among ≥3 groups. Results: A total of 100 dry mandibles were initially analyzed for the presence of lingual foramina with a diameter of ≥2 mm. In 96 of them (50 dentate and 46 edentulous), 387 lingual foramina (mean: 4.03 per mandible) were recognized. Only four mandibles (4.2%) exhibited a single lingual foramen, whereas the remaining 92 (95.8%) displayed multiple foramina (up to nine). The observed lingual foramina had a diameter of 0.44 ± 0.02 mm and were located at distances of 8.74 ± 0.54 mm from the genial tubercle, 14.19 ± 0.87 mm from the alveolar crest, and 14.53 ± 0.84 mm from the inferior border of the mandible. Based on their relationship to the genial tubercle, the foramina were classified into four distinct groups: (i) right (27/387 – 7%), (ii) proximal (254/387 – 66%), (iii) superior (81/387 – 21%), and (iv) left (25/387 – 6%). The superior group exhibited the largest mean diameter (0.52 ± 0.22 mm, ANOVA p<0.001). The probability of detecting a lingual foramen was minimized at a distance of 13.00 ± 0.50 mm from the genial tubercle, delineating a relatively safe zone with a lower risk of hemorrhage. Conclusions: This study provides anatomical insights that contribute to appropriate preoperative planning and the minimization of complications during surgical interventions on the mandible.

Abstract: Wearable devices are increasingly used for health monitoring, yet the impact of consistent wear on physiological and behavioral outcomes is unclear. Leveraging nearly a million days and nights of longitudinal data from 11,914 subscribers, we examined associations between the frequency of wearing a wrist-worn wearable device (WHOOP Inc., Boston, MA) and 12-week changes in biometric, sleep, and activity profiles, modeling both between and within-person effects. Higher average wear frequency, and week-to-week increases in wear, were associated with lower resting heart rate (RHR), higher heart rate variability (HRV), longer and more consistent sleep, and greater weekly and daily physical activity duration (Ps< 0.01). A within-person multiple mediation analysis indicated that increased sleep duration partially mediated the association between wear frequency and standardized (z-scored) RHR (indirect effect = -0.0387 [95% CI: -0.0464, -0.0326]), whereas physical activity minutes did not (indirect effect = 0.0003 [95% CI: -0.0036, 0.0040]). Granger causality analysis revealed a modest but notable association between prior wear frequency and future RHR in participants averaging ≤5 days of weekly wear (P< 0.05 in 10.92% of tests). While further research is needed, our findings provide real-world evidence that sustained wearable engagement may support healthier habits and improved physiological outcomes over time.

Abstract: The transgenic models have been yielding invaluable insights into amyloid pathology as they mimic the nature of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). However, there is no clear relationship between senile plaques and memory deficits. Instead, cognitive impairment and synaptic dysfunction are particularly linked to a rise in Aβ1-42 oligomer level. Thus, injection of Aβ1-42 oligomers into a specific brain region is considered as an alternative to investigate the effects of increased soluble Aβ species without any plaques owing to its controllability, credibility and validity. Despite the homogeneous cytoarchitecture, the hippocampal CA1 (Cornu ammonis 1) region displays topographical heterogeneity and is differentially affected in the early stage of AD. Moreover, specific targeting of CA1 subregion is important not to miss axis-linked implications in the behavioral consequences. Next, inhibitory avoidance (IA) task is a relevant learning paradigm to assess synaptic basis of hippocampal CA1-dependent contextual memory formation. This one-trial task is based on associating the training context with the aversive stimulus after the foot shock and triggers training-dependent synaptic plasticity similar to in vitro HFS (High-frequency stimulation). Therefore, in this review, we will focus on why injection of Aβ1-42 oligomers is a valid in vivo model to investigate the early stage of AD and why dorsal CA1 region is a target area to understand the adverse effects of Aβ1-42 oligomers on contextual learning in the IA task.

Abstract: Background: The dorsal scapular nerve (DSN) and the long thoracic nerve (LTN) exhibit variable anatomical pathways, which may contribute to upper back pain and impaired scapular movement in affected patients. This study investigates these variations to enhance clinicians’ diagnostic and surgical approaches. Methods: Bilateral cervical regions of 32 formalin-embalmed cadavers (64 sides) were dissected to document the origin of the DSN, the relationship with the scalene muscles of the DSN, and anatomical connections between the DSN and LTN. Measure-ments of the distance between the mastoid process and the piercing point of the DSN to the scalene muscle were obtained with digital calipers. Additional measurements were obtained from the medial border of the scapula at two specific locations: the scapular spine (zone 1) and the mid-point between the scapular spine and the inferior angle of the scapula (zone 2). Results: The DSN demonstrated four distinct cervical spinal nerve root origins and five unique scalene muscle piercing patterns. The average distance between the DSNs scalene muscle piercing point and the mastoid process was 94.87 ± 10.09 mm, with significantly greater distances observed in male specimens compared to female specimens (p < 0.001). Connections between the DSN and LTN were identified in 65.2% of the examined cervical regions. The mean distance of the DSN from the medial border of the scapula at zone 2 was significantly greater than at zone 1 (p < 0.001). Conclusion: Anatomical variation findings and classification of the DSN provide valuable insights, offering guidance involving clinical procedures of the scalene and rhomboid musculature to minimize the risk of iatrogenic injury. The documented variations may also assist in the diagnosis and management of DSN-related pathologies such as DSN neuropathy.

Abstract: Background: Ageing is associated with a progressive decline in muscle strength, particularly in the lower limbs, which compromises functional independence. While both maximum voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) and one-repetition maximum (1RM) are widely employed to assess muscle strength, the reliability and predictive capacity of MVIC for estimating 1RM in older women remain insufficiently explored. Objectives: This study aims to evaluate the test-retest reliability of MVIC in knee extensors, analyse its correlation with 1RM, and develop a predictive model for estimating 1RM from MVIC in older women. Methods: Using a randomised split-sample design, 82 women aged 60–69 years performed two MVIC trials and one 1RM test using a leg extension machine. Reliability was assessed by calculating the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), the standard error of measurement (SEM), and the minimal detectable change (MDC). Furthermore, a linear regression model was developed to predict 1RM based on MVIC. Results: MVIC demonstrated excellent reliability (ICC = 0.96, SEM = 4.3%, MDC = 11.9%), and a strong correlation between MVIC and 1RM was observed (R² = 0.618). Moreover, the predictive equation (1RM = 0.932, MVIC – 3.852) showed no significant differences between estimated and measured 1RM values (p = 0.791), albeit with a prediction error of 13.4%. Conclusions: MVIC is a highly reliable measure in older women and represents a practical tool for estimating 1RM. Nonetheless, its predictive accuracy is limited, highlighting the need for further studies to refine predictive models by incorporating additional variables.

Abstract: Background/Objectives: Mental Foramen (MF) constitutes a passage for mental nerve and vessels, and is a crucial anatomical landmark in the body of the mandible. The Accessory Mental Foramen (AMF) is a small, addable foramen proximate to MF, mainly located posteriorly. AMF is a rare anatomical variation in human mandibles which must be taken into consideration throughout dental and surgical operations. We aimed to assess the incidence and perform a morphological and morphometric analysis of AMFs in human dry mandibles of Greek population in addition to a relevant systematic review and meta-analysis of worldwide data. Methods: We studied 114 human adult dry mandibles of unknown gender and age available in the Laboratory of Anatomy, Medical School, Democritus University of Thrace, Greece. Moreover, we used the search term “accessory mental foramen” in PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar databases to detect all publications reporting prevalence and morphology of AMF in dry mandibles. Quality assessment was performed with the relevant Johanna-Briggs Institute tool. Results: According to our data, the MF was present in all observed mandibles and it was bilateral. Nine AMFs (5 right/4 left; 5 round/4 oval; 6 posterior/3 anterior to MF), were found in 7 mandibles (5 single, 2 double), all unilateral. AMFs presented 0.96±0.43 mm mean diameter, 4.12±2.15 mm mean distance from MF, 12.68±4.10 mm from alveolar ridge, and 11.92±1.57 mm from mandible lower border. Furthermore, 27 publications were included in the meta-analysis; the combined AMF prevalence was 6.1% (95% CI: 4.8% - 7.6%; I2 60%), the combined mean vertical axis was 1.18 ± 0.61 mm, and the combined mean distance from MF was 3.64 ± 2.29 mm. Bilateral AMFs were detected in 2.1% of AMF cases. Oval shape was described in 37.3% of AMFs. No publication bias was detected. Conclusions: Dental surgeons must have a comprehensive understanding of the anatomical variations in the mental foramen (MF) and the potential presence of accessory mental foramina (AMFs). This knowledge is essential to prevent or mitigate the risk of postoperative complications such as pain, anesthesia, injury, and other adverse outcomes. By incorporating this anatomical insight into surgical and anesthetic planning, clinicians can enhance patient safety and procedural success.

Abstract: It is widely accepted that a resting muscle does not present detectable electromyographic signals at the skin surface (sEMG). For this reason, studies on resting muscle tone often focus on measuring mechanical properties, such as stiffness, tension, and elasticity, either through palpation or specific devices. In this study, the superficial flexor muscle of the fingers was analyzed. First, the Power Spectral Density (PSD) was obtained in a resting state (PSD_pre). Subsequently, the muscle was subjected to a fatigue protocol, and immediately, after returning to the resting state, the PSD was measured once again (PSD_pos). The results suggest that the muscle at rest presents detectable electromyographic signals. Furthermore, the Wilcoxon signed rank test indicates a statistically significant decrease in PSD_pre compared to PSD_pos, with a 95% confidence level (p-value = 0.00443). In other words, the resting muscle, after experiencing fatigue, shows a greater accumulation of power in its sEMG signal compared to the pre-fatigue state.

Abstract: Background and Objectives: Measuring the joint range-of-motion (ROM) is essential for diagnosing and treating musculoskeletal diseases. However, most clinical measurements are conducted using conventional devices, and their reliability may significantly depend on the tester. This study implemented an RGB-D (red/green/blue-depth) sensor-based artificial intelligence (AI) device to measure joint ROM and compared its reliability with that of a universal goniometer (UG). Materials and Methods: A single-center study was conducted from January 2022 to December 2022 on par-ticipants visiting the Chung-nam National University Hospital to compare the reliability of the RGB-D sensor-based AI device with that of the UG for measuring ROM. The ROM of the shoulder, hip, and lumbar spine joints was measured in 35 healthy participants in our hospital. The ROM was measured during active motion by the participants in the standing position. The ROM was meas-ured twice consecutively using the RGB-D sensor-based AI device, and the mean values were ob-tained along with other values. A clinician also measured the ROM twice using a UG. Bland–Altman analysis was performed to evaluate the reliability of the measurements, which was assessed using intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC). An ICC value greater than 0.90 indicates excellent reliability. Results: Both methods achieved good-to-excellent intra-test reliability results (ICC > 0.75) for all the joints, with the reliability being slightly higher for the RGB-D sensor-based AI method than for the UG measurements. Moreover, for both methods, the inter-test reliability was higher than good (ICC > 0.75) for shoulder and lumbar joint ROM measurements but lower than good (ICC < 0.75) for hip ROM measurements. Conclusions: This study compared the efficacies of the RGB-D sensor-based AI method and UG in measuring ROM. In the future, this RGB-D sensor-based AI method should be technologically improved, and the measurement methods and protocols should be standardized.

Abstract: Angiopoietin-1 (Ang-1) and its receptor Tie-2 promote vascular integrity and angiogenesis. microRNAs (miRNAs) are involved in the regulation of many cellular functions, including endothelial cell (EC) survival, proliferation and differentiation. Several reports indicate that these effects of miRNAs on EC functions are mediated through modulation of angiogenesis factor signaling including that of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). To date, very little is known about the roles played by miRNAs in the signaling and angiogenesis promoted by the Ang-1/Tie-2 receptor axis. Our high throughput screening of miRNAs regulated by Ang-1 exposure in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) has identified miR-1233-3p as a mature miRNA whose cellular levels are significantly downregulated in response to Ang-1 exposure. Expression of miR-1233-3p in these cells is also downregulated by other angiogenesis factors including VEGF, fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF-2), transforming growth factor  (TGF) and angiopoietin-2 (Ang-2). Overexpression of miR-1233-3p in HUVECs using specific mimics significantly attenuated cell survival, migration and capillary-like tube formation and promoted apoptosis. Moreover, miR-1233-3p over-expression resulted in reversal of the anti-apoptotic, the pro-migration and pro-differentiation effects of Ang-1. Biotinylated miRNA pull-down assays that p53 and DNA damage regulated 1 (PDRG1) is a direct target of miR-1233-3p in HUVECs. Exposure of HUVECs to Ang-1, angiopoietin-2 (Ang-2), fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) or transforming growth factor β (TGF) triggers regulation of PDRG1 expression. This study highlights that miR-1233-3p plays important roles in regulating Ang-1/Tie-2 signaling and angiogenesis in ECs.

Abstract: Background: Elite kayaking demands peak conditioning—tracking these athletes reveals the science behind world-class performance. We tracked physiological demands and body composition changes of Elite male kayakers during the preparatory and transition periods of a kayaking competitive season. Methods: We applied laboratory (body composition assessment and a 4-min all-out test in a kayak ergometer) on-field tests (4×1500-m incremental intermittent protocol with 30-s rest intervals in a kayaking/rowing track) to follow 8 Elite male kayakers (23.1 ± 5.6 y; 80 ± 8.8 kg; 177.0 ± 6.8 cm) at the beginning of the kayaking season (preparatory period — M1; first week of October), 22 weeks later, at beginning of transition period (M2; last week of February), and 5 weeks later, at end of transition period, i.e., beginning of competitive period of the season (M3; first week of April). The M3 corresponded to the participation in international competitions. Results: Distance at VO2peak on the kayak ergometer improved by 36.7 meters from M1 to M3, pace at V4 reduced (improved) by 25.2 s·km-1 from M1 to M2, and 25.6 s·km-1 by M3. Body weight decreased by 2.3 kg from M1 to M2, and fat mass percentage and kilograms decreased by 1.8% and 3.1% respectively. Fat-free mass increased by 1.9% and 3.1% respectively. Skinfold measurements showed a decrease in subscapular, suprailiac, abdominal, and geminal skinfold. Cardiorespiratory fitness improved by 0.7 L·min-1 from M1 to M2, and by 1.1 L·min-1 by M3, and from M2 to M3 was ~ 0.5 L·min-1. Relative VO2peak improved from M1 to M2, and from M2 to M3, with an increase of 6.4 ml·kg-1·min-1. Conclusions: Elite male kayakers improved their physiological performance and body composition during the preparatory and transition phases of the competitive season. Notable gains in performance were mainly due to increased peak oxygen uptake, enhanced cardiorespiratory fitness, and positive body composition changes. These findings provide insights for optimizing training strategies and boosting competitive performance.

Abstract: Given the pivotal role played by the microbiome in skin health it is important to understand how its composition varies with age, gender and body site, and regular use of topical products. Four studies have been carried out to determine the effects of long term (4 week) use of different dexpanthenol containing topical products on the skin microbiome of a varied population with cosmetically dry skin. Skin microbiome composition was assessed before and after product usage. No significant changes in microbiome richness or diversity were found for the individual test products, however meta-analysis of the combined dataset did show changes in microbiome composition as a function of subject sex, age and body site. The work presented here demonstrates how the use of carefully formulated topical products on skin, when used in a way which is representative of real life usage conditions, can respect the microbial diversity present on skin across a widely varied study population.

Abstract: Background: Orthognathic surgery is a surgical procedure that consists of osteotomies and maxillary movements aimed at facial harmony and occlusal repositioning. Methods: The present study aimed to perform a retrospective study using cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) to evaluate the air volume of the maxillary sinus and its attached structures, detection and diagnosis of anatomical defects, induced or not by maxillary advancement surgery - mandibular and/or maxillary impaction in two stages: preoperative (T0) and postoperative of at least 6 months (T1). Results: Of the 31 patients selected, it was found that the volume of the maxillary sinus had no statistically significant change, descriptively there were 6.45% for retention cyst and 32.25% for mucosal thickening, reduction in 6 cases of septal deviation in T1 that were present in T0 in patients undergoing maxillary advancement and impaction. Furthermore, it was possible to observe a decrease in postoperative cases of obstructed ostium and an increase in cases of patent ostium. Conclusion: That orthognathic surgery for maxillary advancement and/or impaction does not pose a risk to the health of the maxillary sinuses during the period analyzed.

Abstract: Background: Histological findings of infective endocarditis (IE) in mechanical valves present a complex diagnostic challenge owing to the lack of a precise definition. This ambiguity is further complicated by the natural degenerative processes that occur in the mechanical valves over time. Consequently, pathologists and clinicians face significant difficulties in distinguishing between genuine infective processes and normal wear and tear of mechanical valves. Methods: This retrospective study examined tissue samples from 93 patients who underwent surgical removal of mechanical heart valves, with 41 cases suspected of infective endocarditis and 52 cases of noninfective dysfunction. The researchers aimed to establish more precise histological criteria for distinguishing between these two conditions, focusing on three key features: vegetations, and inflammatory patterns. Results: IE in patients with prosthetic heart valves presents distinct histological features that aid in the diagnosis and differentiation of non-infective complications. Hallmark characteristics include vegetation and inflammatory infiltrates with neutrophils. Valve tissue specimens from patients whose mechanical valves were removed because of non-infectious complications showed a different histological profile. Inflammatory infiltrates were observed in approximately 26% of these cases; however, they were primarily composed of macrophages and lymphocytes rather than neutrophils. Conclusions: By emphasizing neutrophil-rich inflammation as a key indicator, clinicians and pathologists could more effectively distinguish between true infective endocarditis and non-IE that can occur in the mechanical valves. This distinction is crucial for appropriate patient management as the treatment strategies for infective and non-infective valve conditions differ significantly.

Abstract: There is an increasing understanding that some mitral valve pathologies have developmental origins. The time course of valvulogenesis varies by animal model, where in cattle, the branched chordae tendineae architecture becomes fully developed at full term. The mechanism by which chordae tendineae bifurcate during fetal development remains unknown. The current study presents a detailed description of bovine chordae tendineae formation and bifurcation during fetal development. Analysis of Movat Pentachrome-stained histological sections of the developing mitral valve apparatus were accompanied by micro-CT imaging. TEM imaging of chordae branches and common trunks allowed measurement of collagen fibril diameter distributions. We observed a proteoglycan-rich “transition zone” at the junction between the fetal mitral valve anterior leaflet and chordae tendineae with “perforations” lined by MMP1/2 and Ki-67 expressing endothelial cells. This region also contained clusters of proliferating endothelial within the bulk of the tissue. We hypothesize this zone marks a region where chordae tendineae bifurcate during fetal development. In particular, perforations, created by localized MMP activity serve as a site for the initiation of a “split” of a single chordae attachment into two. This is supported by TEM results that suggest a similar population of collagen fibrils runs from the branches into a common trunk. A clear understanding of normal mitral valvulogenesis and it’s signaling mechanisms will be crucial in developing therapeutics and/or tissue-engineered valve replacements.

Abstract:

Orthostatic hypotension (OH) is a condition marked by a significant drop in blood pressure upon standing, resulting from impaired autonomic regulation of vascular tone and blood volume. This study investigates the prevalence, physiological mechanisms, and occupational risk factors for OH among high-risk professions in Nepal, such as traffic police, security guards, and shopkeepers. Using a cross-sectional design, participants were evaluated for blood pressure variability, autonomic function, and fluid balance. The findings reveal a high incidence of OH, linked to reduced baroreceptor sensitivity and impaired sympathetic activation due to prolonged standing and inadequate hydration. This study highlights the need for tailored clinical interventions and workplace modifications to mitigate OH in vulnerable occupational groups.

Abstract: Background: This study addresses a longstanding discrepancy between the observed course of the superior epigastric artery in anatomical specimens and its depiction in many German-language anatomy textbooks. While the artery typically runs ventral to the diaphragm, textbooks inaccurately describe it as passing through the sternocostal triangle (Larrey's fissure). Methods: Anatomical dissections were performed on 40 formalin-fixed cadavers at the Medical University of Vienna. The thoracic and abdominal walls were dissected, and the course of the superior epigastric artery was documented. Literature from the time of Dominique Larrey to present was reviewed to trace the origin of the incorrect anatomical description.Discussion: Findings confirm that the superior epigastric artery does not traverse Larrey's space but remains ventral to the pleural and peritoneal cavities. The erroneous description appears to have originated from a 19th-century misinterpretation by Joseph Hyrtl and was perpetuated in German-language textbooks.Conclusion: The study refutes the long-standing but incorrect description of the superior epigastric artery's course in German-language anatomy textbooks. The findings highlight the importance of revising anatomical literature to correct historical inaccuracies.

Abstract: Little is known about skeletal muscle thickness, echogenicity, and muscle quality (handgrip strength /muscle thickness) in breast cancer-related lymphedema (BCRL). Using B-mode ultrasound, we recorded the raw radiofrequency data of the affected (AA) and unaffected (UA) arms of women (n=20) with BCRL, and in 20 control women with no lymphedema (CA). The data were converted into images and measurements of skin, subcutaneous fat and muscle thickness were obtained. Within a designated region of interest, muscle echo-intensity was assessed using computer graded grey scale and muscle thickness was measured using ImageJ2. Handgrip strength was measured using standard dynamometry. We found that forearm muscle thickness was similar among AA, UA, and CA. When compared to the unaffected and control arms, the affected arm had a significantly higher (p 0.013) muscle echo-intensity. When compared to the AA, handgrip strength was similar to UA (p 0.401) but lower than CA (p 0.05). We conclude that the use of B-mode ultrasound is a reliable method to assess muscle thickness and EI in BCRL. When comparing AA to UA, the elevated levels of muscle EI in AA did not influence strength or muscle quality. The elevated EI in AA is a marker of abnormal health that needs to be further explored.

Abstract: The COVID-19 pandemic has led to the widespread use of face masks to reduce disease transmission, but one unintended consequence is that this may negatively impact sleep and arousal by altering the expression of yawning. Yawns are defined by an involuntary and powerful gaping of the jaw with inspiration, and the typical design of face masks may restrict and/or disrupt the mandibular jaw movement and counter-current heat exchange during this behavior. Face masks additionally impair the contagious nature of yawning by disrupting the recognition of yawning in others within social/community settings. Given that the neurophysiological consequences of yawning function in facilitating changes in state and arousal, and most notably transitions in waking and sleeping via thermoregulation, face mask usage could be an important variable to consider within sleep studies. We briefly outline these connections, highlight some important factors to consider, and discuss the implications for both prior and current research on sleep.

Abstract: A degree in physiology in Nigeria offers a enormous opportunities that many undergraduates may be unaware of.This article explores different career paths available to physiology undergraduate and graduates in Nigeria. It outlines various fields within clinical and healthcare settings, research and academia, biotechnology and pharmaceuticals, and even alternative careers. It also details specific specializations within clinical physiology, including cardiovascular, respiratory, neurophysiology, sleep, gastrointestinal, and renal physiology.The article emphasizes the importance of gaining practical experience through internships, volunteer work, and networking to equip physiology them with essential skills for job market.