The number of disputes related to water that reach courts in Chile has increased in the last decades, the topics of these disputes have become more complex, and the current conflict resolution system has not been able to adjust to this situation. This study analyses colonial texts from water-related conflicts that were addressed at the Royal Hearings in Santiago (1691-1800) and from the Cabildo gatherings (1541-1802), using an adaptation of the Institutional Analysis and Development framework. The research shows a strong institutional system surrounding conflict resolution during colonial times, with nested schemes and empowered figures appointed in leading roles. However, a lack of equity and inclusion of all actors is also visible, reducing its legitimacy. At present, the increasing value of water and a sense of distrust in the institutional system have led to longer and more complex conflict resolution processes. Here, learning from past times about the empowerment of the institutional system for solving water disputes could be useful. An increased support towards initial conflict resolution mechanisms, giving space for local knowledge and generating stronger participation in these initial steps, could also be a lesson for the future.

Many techniques have been and are being made to find alternatives to water-saving practices. Among them, Partial root drying (PRD), one of the effective approaches, plays a major role in reducing the harmful effects of water deficit stress. An experiment was carried out using irrigation strategies [I1 (100% full irrigation “FI”), I2 (75%FI), I3 (50%FI), and I4 (PRD (50%FI)] and soil organic mulch [L0 (Zero layer organic soil mulch” control”), L1 (Single layer organic soil mulch), L2 (Two layers of organic soil mulch), and L3 (Three layers of organic soil mulch)] to inspect the impact of those treatments for increasing yield, water productivity and saving energy under arid region conditions. To meet the study's objective, two field experiments were carried out at a private farm. Our results demonstrated a general decrease in water stress and salt accumulation inside root-zone area with PRD with L3. The PRD strategy increased fruit yields by 3.7 and 7.3% and water productivity by 51.9 and 53.1% compared with I1 during 2020/2021 and 2021/2022, respectively, while reducing the applied irrigation water by 50 %. The PRD strategy showed superior results in increasing mango yield and water productivity. In general, PRD can be used as good technique to save water and energy up to 50% and enhance productivity along with using organic mulching, ultimately improving mango yield under arid climatic regions. It may prove a good adaptation strategy for current and future water shortage scenarios of climate change.

Although the water absorption feature (WAF) at 970 nm is not very well-defined, it may be used alongside other indices to estimate the canopy water content. The individual performance of a number of existing vegetation water content (VWC) indices against the WAF is assessed using linear regression model. We developed a new Combined Vegetation Water Index (CVWI) by merging indices to boost the weak absorption feature. CVWI showed a promise in assessing the vegetation water status derived from the 970 nm absorption wavelength. CVWI was able to differentiate two groups of dataset when regressed against the absorption feature. CVWI could be seen as an easy and robust method for vegetation water content studies using hyperspectral field data.

Two pilot scale desalination system employing carbon modified nano-sized, zero valent metals (n-ZVM) were maufactured and tested to determine (1) the degree to which high salt water (20 to 130 mS) could be desalinated and (2) if this degree of desalination could be maintained throughout an extended treatment period. Two pilot systems were tested (referred to as Generation 1 and Generation 2) consisting of parallel lines of 4 individual reactors in series, a settling tank and an activated carbon cell at the end of each reactor line. The system capacity was 300 gal in Generation 1 and 600 gal in Generation 2 total with a total hydraulic residence time of 6 hours per reactor line (one hour per cell/tank). A slurry of n-ZVM was introduced in the first reactor on each line to yield approximately 5 to 45 grams of nano-metal per 100 L of influent salt water. The n-ZVM slurry was made from mixing tea extract with metal salts (eg ferrous sulfate, ferric chloride) to produce the carbon modified metal slurry. Initial runs focused on dosing required to achieve maximum salt removal at each of three influent salt contents, 28 mS, 44 mS and 123 mS. Once dosing was set, continuous runs (14 days, 23 days and 9 days) were carried out to (1) examine the ability of the pilot to maintain the removal efficiency over an extended period, (2) to determine the weaknesses inherent in the pilot systems, and (3) to begin to develop CAPEX and OPEX estimates for the pilot and pre-design full scale mobile desalination unit (MDU) system. Results demonstrated that maximum removal occurred with 10 g/100L of salt for the 30 mS salt solution,16 g/100 L of salt for the 40 mS influent water and 40 g/100 L for the 130 mS influent. Salt removal (expressed as Na and Cl removed) approached 78% for the 30 mS influent and 41 mS influent respectively while removal for the highest salt influent (130 mS) approached 81 %. Addition of greater amounts of carbon modified slurry than those described resulted in a pH less than 6 which inhibits continued salt removal and would require addition of calcium or magnesium oxides/hydroxides or bicarbonate solutions at the influent side to achieve greater salt removal and of course greater cost per gallon. Continuous operation over the extended time-period showed no significant decrease in salt removal with typical day to day variation of no more than 10% suggesting that this approach to desalination could rapidly provide usable water from saline aquifers, seawater or even produced water. Treatment of saline waters at 30 mS or less yields effluent water in the range necessary for irrigation use of many crops while treatment of seawater or produced water levels of salt (40 mS or higher) yields effluent in the range of 8 to 10 mS a range ideal for RO influent that would prevent the production of large volumes of brine. Pilot testing continues with seawater extracted from Puget Sound, Seattle WA and higher levels of salt to better represent produced water.

The analysis and simulation of water quality in distribution networks is a complex issue of great concern today. The analysis of the evolution of water age, as a simple indicator of water quality in the network, is of great interest in both design and operation phases. Understanding the factors that have the strongest influence on water quality is key to developing adequate strategies aimed at preserving it. This paper firstly analyses the factors with biggest influence in the tanks water age, to support the selection of the most appropriate configuration from the point of view of water quality during design phases. Then, the main considerations when modelling tanks following the different mixing models considered in Epanet have been presented. Also, a real tank behaviour has been characterised through field measurements and Epanet simulations in order to determine the best fitted mixing model.

Proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells have emerged as a viable alternative energy production source for stationary and transportation applications. Reliable and sustainable fuel cell operation requires effective water management. Membrane water content can vary along the stack during transients which can lead to losses in fuel cell performance. To control these variations a model that predicts the internal humidity dynamics of the stack is needed. In this study, a control-oriented model for predicting membrane water content variation was developed and implemented in MATLAB/Simulink. A lumped parameter model was initially developed and then further discretized into smaller control volumes to track humidity distribution along the stack. To validate the model’s predictions, the predicted results were compared to computer simulation results from GT-Suite. The root mean square error (RMSE) between the model’s prediction and GT-Suite’s simulation results was found to be within 1.5 membrane water content for all cases, demonstrating the model’s capability to capture the variation of membrane water content along the stack. The developed model will be useful for real-time control of membrane water content variation in PEM fuel cells.

Japanese plums form part of a multi-billion rand deciduous fruit industry in South Africa. Despite this, there is a paucity of knowledge on the seasonal water requirements of plum orchards. In a time of changing climatic conditions and diminishing water resources, this gap in literature poses an imminent threat to the long-term sustainability and global competitiveness of the South African plum industry. Therefore, this paper aimed to provide a review of the available literature on the crop water requirements of full-bearing well-irrigated Japanese plum orchards for improved agricultural water management. Full-year water requirements for well-watered full-bearing Japanese orchards ranged between 921 and 1 211 mm a-1 with a mean value of 1 084 ±140 mm a-1. Canopy growth and pruning appeared to be the most common causes of differences in water requirement estimates. Growing season length also plays a role with late-season maturing orchards having higher water requirements than their early and mid-maturing counterparts. The knowledge review provided benchmark figures for the annual water requirements of Japanese plums. However further research is required to determine the water requirement of plums from planting to full-bearing age and the response of plum trees to water stress, in a South African context.

Despite the popularity of infant swimming programs, no evidence exists to determine whether they influence infants’ judgements and behavior when confronted with bodies of water. In the current study we examined whether the total number of swimming sessions an infant had participated in predicted whether they avoided a body of water they could enter via an edge (n = 101 infants) or a slope (n = 77 infants). An initial regression analysis revealed no association between the number of sessions and avoidance of the water via either type of entry. However, a secondary analysis of infants who had participated in fewer or more than 10 sessions revealed a significant interaction between number of sessions and type of entry into the water. Infants who participated in more than 10 sessions were more likely to avoid the water if they could access it via an edge but significantly more likely to enter the water if they could access it via a slope. Because we tested the two groups of infants in different countries, further research is warranted to determine if cultural differences in child rearing practices or variations in the content and/or teaching of the swimming programs might explain these intriguing findings.

This review evaluates the trajectory and sustainability of the global and Mexican aquaculture industry. Globally, the sector is experiencing rapid growth, catalyzed by evolving consumption patterns and technological advancements. Notwithstanding the benefits, environmental concerns necessitate an urgent shift towards sustainable practices. The focus then narrows to Mexico's aquaculture, tracing its history from the late 19th century. With an emphasis on species diversification, the country's sector demonstrates resilience and potential, with an impressive yield of 249,613.71 tons in 2021 despite regional consolidation. However, persistent challenges such as technological limitations, funding shortages, and access to quality seeds hinder progress. Risks, including disease outbreaks, negative environmental impact, economic volatility, regulatory compliance, and climate change, further underscore the need for sustainable strategies. With government support and unique geographical and climatic advantages, Mexico shows promise for a significant % growth projection of 25% over the next five years. This review underscores the importance of embracing technological innovation, implementing sustainable practices, and enacting supportive legislation for the long-term success of the aquaculture sector worldwide, with a particular focus on Mexico.

High quantities of wastewater produced from producing natural gas and oil from the aquifer, which called produced water. The produced water was comprised of dissolved solids, suspended solids, emulsified oil, and organic and inorganic compounds. That should be treated it's before disposal because it causes harm to the environment. This study takes the produced water from the southern Iraqi oilfield drilling company to adsorption by the Cane papyrus as natural and low-cost adsorbent. The analysis completed by using Fourier transforms infrared spectroscopy, EDX spectra and Scanning Electron Microscopic (SEM) for Cane papyrus. Investigating the effect of many parameters such as adsorbent dosage, temperature, solution pH, mixer speed and contact time. The Langmuir, Freundlich, Temkin and Harkins-Henderson isotherm models were tested, the results were 0.998,0.966, 0.931 and 0.966 respectively. The Langmuir model was more suitable described the adsorption process than the other models. The kinetics results were, 0.984 for Pseudo-first-order, 0.938 for Pseudo-second order is, 0.979 for Intra particle diffusion study and 0.912 for the Elovich model, the Pseudo-first-order kinetic equation best described the kinetics of the reaction. The thermodynamics study effect temperature changes on the thermodynamic parameters such as standard free energy change (∆G°), standard enthalpy change (∆H°) and standard entropy change (∆S°). The experimental data obtained demonstrated that Cane papyrus is a suitable adsorbent for removing oil from produced water.

The paper presents a model of moisture transport in wood taking into account diffusion and the accompanying adsorption of water vapour through the skeleton. A two-parameter form of the source term was proposed, depending on the distance of the current mass concentration of bound water from the equilibrium state. The tests on cubic samples with a side of 2 cm were carried out which allowed to determine the coefficients of the proposed model on the basis of the reverse method. The tests were performed for pine, larch, oak and ash in all directions of orthotropy. Also the tests on thin samples were performed to verify the source term.

Effective water resources management requires assessments of water availability within a framework of complex institutions and infrastructure employed to manage extremely variable stream flow shared by numerous often competing water users and diverse types of use. The Water Rights Analysis Package (WRAP) modeling system is fundamental to water allocation and planning in the state of Texas in the United States. Integration of environmental flow standards into both the modeling system and comprehensive statewide water management is a high priority for continuing research and development. The public domain WRAP software and documentation are generalized for application any place in the world. Lessons learned in developing and implementing the modeling system in Texas are relevant worldwide. The modeling system combines: (1) detailed simulation of water right systems, interstate compacts, international treaties, federal/state/local agreements, and operations of storage and conveyance facilities; (2) simulation of river system hydrology; and (3) statistical frequency and reliability analyses. The continually evolving modeling system has been implemented in Texas by a water management community that includes the state legislature, planning and regulatory agencies, river authorities, water districts, cities, industries, engineering consulting firms, and university researchers. The shared modeling system contributes significantly to integration of water allocation, planning, system operations, and research.

To address the question whether there is evidence that drinking water in general or mineral water in particular is effective in preventing diabetes; we performed a literature search of randomized controlled trials (PubMed). The search resulted in very few trials (N = 9) investigating this topic: one trial investigates the effect of increasing water consumption on glycemic control in diabetic patients; two trials investigate the effect of drinking water with a meal in diabetic patients; while six trials compare the effect of mineral rich water with that of low mineralized water on glucose metabolism in healthy subjects. There is evidence that increasing water consumption can improve glucose metabolism and randomized controlled trials with mineral water suggest that waters containing relevant amounts of magnesium can exert an additional effect. The role of bicarbonate; which is present in all the mineral waters used in the trials; will be discussed. Future research needs to investigate the effect of mineral water in prediabetic individuals or individuals with impaired glycemic control.

The goods and services produced by forest and vegetation ecology system is the power by which human society can be promoted fast in high-quality and sustainable way. With the increase of population and economic development in water-limited regions, there is an increasing demand for the quantity and variety of forest vegetation ecosystem products and services. To meet the demands of this situation, most of the original forest has changed into farmland, non-native forest and grass land. As a result, water-plant relationship changed from equilibrium to non-equilibrium, which led to soil drought, soil degradation and vegetation decline in dry years or waste of soil water in rainy years in most of water-limited regions. In order to solve the questions and realize the sustainable utilization of soil water resources and the high quality and sustainable development of social economy, it is necessary to apply the utilization limit theory of soil water resources by plants and the theory of soil water carrying capacity for vegetation to adjust the relationship between plant growth and soil moisture to obtain the maximum yield and benefit of vegetation and serve high-quality and sustainable development.

Abstract: Urban population growth and the expansion of the built environment, pollution, overexploitation of water, inequality in water distribution, and the impacts of climate change in future availability of water, are all elements that jeopardize urban water security. Due to the complexity of urban water systems and their relevance for urban life, a holistic and integrative perspective is therefore needed to address such challenges. In this paper, Urban Water Metabolism (UWM) has been used for comprehensively understanding water (in)security in the City of Puebla (Mexico) and its metropolitan area. Water inflows and outflows have been estimated using a Material Flow Analysis (MFA) method with data either obtained from official sources or simulated with the Monte Carlo method. Our findings show that the UWM configuration in the City of Puebla and its metropolitan area is effective for generating profits to service providers and water related business, yet ineffective to guarantee citizens’ Human Right to Water and Sanitation (HRWS), a right recognized in the Constitution of Mexico. We conclude that to advance towards an inclusive and sustainable provision of water, economic interests must be reconsidered and therefore adjusted so they can be in line with such aspirational socioecological goals. UWM accounting can therefore inform new water governance arrangements, those based on both the best available knowledge and a vibrant participation of all relevant stakeholders.

Ad- and desorption forces move water in living xylem/wood from the root to the leaf thermodynamically. The doctrine of plant water transport, the so-called cohesion- or cohesion-tension theory, postulates however that the process is physically based on a hydraulic fluid flow with negative pressure in water conducting tubes originating from the leaves. Lower pressure (suction) driven volume flow is physically a branch of mechanics. Moisture absorbed from the soil via the root is thought to be pulled up the stem by the leaves in continuous and tensioned threads of water. It is assumed that the hydraulic Hagen/Poiseuille flow law, derived for tubes, applies in the xylem. In a textbook of botany you can find the opinion: "Just as the pipes of a water pipe supply necessary water to each household, leaf nerves supply water and nutrient salts to each individual cell.” (Translated from German). Many plant physiologists consider this hydraulic principle to be correct, but it does not remain unchallenged. Doubts are repeatedly expressed. The question arises: How does water transport actually take place? It is shown how the diffusive/adsorption transport principle works. The partial dehydration (desorption) of the plant, driven by the diffusive process of transpiration, forms a combined concentration and adsorption-site gradient for water in the xylem matrix. Especially with open stomata the lowest moisture concentration and the highest number of adsorption-sites for water (sites with free van der Waals forces), can be found in the mesophyll cell walls at the liquid/vapor boundary in the leaf. The water taken up by the root moves spontaneously in the direction of this boundary and can thus partially or completely compensate for the existing concentration- and adsorption-site- differences for water. Thus, a thermodynamic overlapping diffusive/adsorptive movement of moisture along the stationary xylem/wood takes place. After the introduction and a review of some controversies with cohesion theory, the physiology of the processes associated with long-distance water displacement is mentioned below. A thermodynamic adsorption hypothesis of the natural water transport in plants, based on known facts, is presented.

Abstract: Current models in design of urban water management systems and their corresponding infrastructure using centralized designs have commonly failed from the perspective of cost effectiveness and inability to adapt to the future changes. These challenges are driving cities towards using decentralized systems. While there is great consensus on the benefits of decentralization; currently no methods exist which guide decision-makers to define the optimal boundaries of decentralized water systems. A new clustering methodology and tool to decentralize water supply systems (WSS) into small and adaptable units is presented. The tool includes two major components: (i) minimization of the distance from source to consumer by assigning demand to the closest water source, and (ii) maximization of the intra-cluster homogeneity by defining the cluster boundaries such that the variation in population density, land use, socio-economic level, and topography within the cluster is minimized. The methodology and tool are applied to Arua Town in Uganda. Four random cluster scenarios and a centralized system were created and compared with the optimal clustered WSS. It was observed that the operational cost of the four cluster scenarios is up to 13.9 % higher than the optimal, and the centralized system is 26.6% higher than the optimal clustered WSS, consequently verifying the efficacy of the proposed method to determine an optimal cluster boundary for WSS. In addition, optimal homogeneous clusters improve efficiency by encouraging reuse of wastewater and stormwater within a cluster and by minimizing leakage through reduced pressure variations.

Tourism, and particularly residential tourism, has led to a change in the urban and demographic model of towns along the European Mediterranean coastline. Water as a limited and limiting resource for the growth of tourism is a popular topic in the scientific literature. However, the incorporation of non-conventional resources (desalination) has meant, in theory, that this limitation has been overcome. The aims of this paper are: a) to identify the different tourism models implanted in this territory and describe them from the point of view of their consumption of water in the demand cycle from 2002 to 2017; b) analyse the hydrosocial cycle, highlighting the measures aimed at satisfying water demand; and c) identify the limitations associated with these hydrosocial systems. To this end, different types of information will be processed, and various complex indicators produced. The results show the importance that demand management and the use of desalinated water in increasing the resilience of this territory to aridity. However, this has generated other problems associated with a tsunami of construction and the continuity of a non-sustainable territorial model.

Global warming and the global energy crisis are two major challenges humanity is currently confronting that are pressuring the scientific community to find efficient, low cost and environmentally sustainable solutions. Within this context, hydrogen has emerged as a clean and efficient energy carrier promising to replace the environmentally hazardous fossil fuels. The present study, of relevance to the water splitting domain, concerns the synthesis of two novel hybrid structures, based on perovskite materials functionalized with polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP). The water electrolysis catalytic activity of these new materials was evaluated in a strongly alkaline medium. Perovskite-based modified electrodes were manufactured through four different procedures. The samples displayed electrocatalytic activity for the O2 evolution reaction and the most active electrode was the one obtained by drop-casting a mixture of LaMnO3:Ag/PVP, Carbon Black and Nafion on graphite support. The study is aimed at and succeeds in increasing the scientific database concerning the role of perovskite oxides in the water splitting field.

In the context of global warming and increasing scarcity of fresh water resources, it becomes siginificant to evaluate the contribution and evolution of non-rainfall waters such as dew. This study therefore evaluates the relative dew and rain contributions in three sites in south-western of Madagascar (Ifaty, Toliara and Andremba), a semi-arid region which suffers of a strong water deficit. The studied period is 1991 – 2023, with extrapolation to 2033. Dew is calculated from meteo data using a well-established energy model. The extrapolation uses an artificial neural network approach. While the yearly dew/rain ratio remains modest (3-4%) dew forms regularly (2-3 days in average between events), in contrast to rain (10-15 days). The evolutions of dew and rain are similar, with an increase from 1991 to 2000, a decrease up to 2018 and a further increase till 2033. These oscillations follow the Indian Ocean dipole variations and should be influenced by the climate change. Dew contribution to the water balance is important during the dry season (Apr.-Oct.), up to 80%. Dew therefore appears to be a reliable and sustainable resource for plants, small animals and population, especially during droughts.

The use of zeolite in agriculture as a soil conditioner is becoming an important field of research in crop growth. To study the effect of synthetic zeolite and deficit irrigation on sweet pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) cultivation, an experiment in a controlled environment was conducted. In particular, sweet pepper was cultivated in a glasshouse using polypropylene pots filled with sandy-loam soil to which 2% of zeolite was added. The zeolite employed in the experiments was obtained using coal fly ash as raw material. The experiment was planned in order to have two main treatments consisting of a) soil with zeolite at 2% (Z) and b) soil without zeolite, as control (C), and three subplot treatments consisting of 1) full irrigation at 100% of available water content (AWC) (100); 2) deficit irrigation at 70% of AWC (70); 3) deficit irrigation at 50% of AWC (50). Sweet pepper cultivation started on the 24th April 2023 and lasted until the 23th June 2023 and during the trial environmental data, such as soil humidity, air temperature and relative humidity, and some crop parameters, such as plant height, leaf number, SPAD index, were monitored. At the end of the trial, fresh and dry plant weight, dry matter content, and leaf water potential were measured. Results showed that for plant fresh weight and dry matter content, no significant differences were observed by treatments and their interactions whereas for the other parameters the statistical analysis returned significant differences. The study suggests that the soil structural benefits, resulting from the zeolite application, are not followed by an equal positive effect in terms of sweet pepper growth under deficit irrigation conditions.

This study identified and mapped worldwide surveillance actions and initiatives of drinking water quality implemented by government agencies or public health services. The scoping review was conducted between July 2021 and August 2022 based on the Joanna Briggs Institute. The search was performed in relevant databases and grey literature; 49 studies were obtained. Quantitative variables were presented as absolute and relative frequencies, while qualitative variables were analyzed using the IRaMuTeQ software. The actions developed worldwide and their impacts and results provided four thematic classes: (1) assessment of coverage, accessibility, quantity, and drinking water quality in routine and emergency situations; (2) analysis of physical-chemical and microbiological parameters in public supply networks or alternative water supply solutions; (3) identification of household water contamination, communication, and education with the community; (4) and investigation of water-borne disease outbreaks. Preliminary results were shared with stakeholders to favor early knowledge dissemination.

Abstract: The concept of sustainability applied to sports activities means ensuring that the economic benefits brought about by their development are not obtained at the expense of causing ecological damage or interference in local cultural habits. A cable-ski is a nautical ski system whereby a motorboat is substituted by a cable traction system powered by an electric motor. The effect on the quality of the water in those places that can boast cable-ski facilities has been described in cold freshwater lakes. Objective: Our purpose was to study the evolution of water quality in a ten-year period after the installation of a cable-ski facility in a warm, salted, semi-stagnant pond. Material and Method: Review of the data gathered from the routine test carried out by the Laboratory of the Council of Alcúdia from 2010 to 2019 Results: The levels of dissolved oxygen have increased, being significantly higher in the period 2016 – 2019 than in that of 2010 – 2015. The turbidity of the water has also seen a reduction in the second period with respect to the first. Conclusion: It seems that cable-ski improves the quality of water even warm, high-conductivity, semi-stagnant conditions

This article discusses the implementation of the Water Framework Directive (WFD) in the Netherlands and intends to show how law and politics combine in river basin management. Initially, the implementation of the WFD in the Netherlands was approached as a technical and administrative issue, handled by water quality and ecology experts, but in 2003 this approach was broken open by the agricultural sector, who were worried about stricter regulation. Subsequently, the environmental objectives of the WFD were set as low as possible and they are not used in authorising individual projects. Yet, in 2015 of the European Court of Justice determined that the environmental objectives have binding effect and that Member States have to refuse authorisation for projects that endanger the achievement of these objectives. In the future, the European Court of Justice and national courts may force the Dutch government to change its approach. They may only do so because and as long as they enjoy sufficient social and political support and function relatively independently. The article concludes that, to understand river basin management fully, one has to open up the black box of water law and become a kind of water lawyer.

Rainwater harvesting could be an optional water source to fulfil the emergency water demand in different setups. The aim was to assess if the rainwater harvesting potential for households and selected institutions were sufficient to satisfy the emergency water demand for the prevention of COVID-19 in Dilla town, Southern, Ethiopia. Rain water harvesting potential for households and selected institutions were quantified using 17 years’ worth of rainfall data from Ethiopian Metrology Agency. With an average annual rainfall of 1464 mm, households with 40 and 100 m2 roof sizes have a potential to harvest between 15.71-31.15 m3 and 41.73-82.73 m3 of water using Maximum Error Estimate. Meanwhile 7.2-39.7 m3 and 19.11-105.35 m3 of water can be harvested from the same roof sizes using Coefficient of Variation for calculation. Considering mean monthly rainfall, the health centres and Dilla University can attain 45.7% and 77% of their emergency water demand, while the rest of the selected institutions in Dilla Town can attain more than 100 % of their demand using only rainwater. Rain water can be an alternative water source for the town in the fight against COVID-19.

This paper presents a device for measuring and maintaining the constant water level in a tank. The device uses a capacity sensor to measure the water level. The sensor has a DC voltage output proportional to the water level in the tank. This voltage can be used in other automation too. The water level, in percentages, is displayed on a vu meter with 8 LEDs. The circuit for maintaining the constant level consists in a comparator with hysteresis. The level of the water is adjustable, using a reference voltage from a potentiometer (marked in percentages). The level of the water is compared with the prescribed level and the difference between them commands the start/stop of the water pump which supplies the tank through a relay. The device is powered by 220 V and is isolated from the environment.

To alleviate the contradiction between the increasing demand for water and the shortage of resources and to provide a favorable institutional environment for water rights trading, the Chinese government has strengthened the top-level design of water management system. However, the water-rich regions (southern regions of China) have good water resource endowment and a surplus of total water consumption indicators. Does this mean that there is no incentive and no need to conduct water rights trading in these regions? Through the investigation of water rights circulation cases in the Taihu Basin, a typical water-rich region of China, we established the existence of trading demand and some difficulties in conducting transactions. This paper argues that the needs of trading include alleviating the water gap in regional development, solving the water demand for large new projects, coordinating trans-jurisdiction water disputes. The plight of trading includes the lack of awareness, irregular process, excessive administrative intervention, and imperfect trading system.

The concept of ecosystem services (ESs) provides a valuable approach to communicate societies' dependence on natural ecosystems, assisting in the evaluation of measures to protect vegetation in watersheds that promote water-related ESs. Vegetation cover and land use are important factors related to the capacity of ecosystems to provide soil loss regulation and sediment retention services, which are highly relevant for sediment management in watersheds draining into reservoirs with multiple water uses. This study aims to assess the relationship between potential changes in land use and land cover and the sediment retention service provided by riparian vegetation in a watershed draining into a hydroelectric reservoir in the Brazilian Cerrado. Sediment load was selected as a physical variable that affects different water uses in reservoirs, with these uses being dependent on the quality or quantity of stored water. Scenarios were analyzed to represent landscape reconfigurations from a baseline condition in order to account for the recovery of riparian vegetation by the agricultural sector, as foreseen in the Brazilian Forest Code. To map and quantify variations in annual sediment retention, the InVEST model was used, which allows estimating an integrated response of the drainage basin to large-scale land use changes over time and space. The results show that for the drainage basin of the Corumbá IV Hydroelectric Power Plant (HPP), the recovery of riparian areas occupied by annual crops has the potential to generate greater benefits to water use in the reservoir. In the studied catchment area, 14% of the total vegetation deficit in riparian areas is occupied by crops, while 86% is occupied by pastures. This highlights the buffering role of riparian vegetation as an effective practice for managing sediment flows originating from sheet erosion in agricultural landscapes. The methodology employed in this study allows for the quantification and mapping of the effects of soil and water conservation measures in river basins. This enables the prioritization of sectoral efforts for the restoration of native vegetation, considering the highest returns in benefits perceived by water users affected by sediment input in reservoirs. The study's results reinforce the importance of conserving vegetation in riparian areas and their surroundings for sediment retention, highlighting the role of these areas as assets in providing water-related ecosystem services.

In water scarcity regions, using data-driven approaches to predict groundwater level is challenging due to limited data availability. However, these regions have substantial water needs and require cost-effective groundwater utilization strategies. In this study, we use artificial intelligence to predict groundwater levels to provide guidance for drilling shallow boreholes for subsistence irrigation. The Bilate watershed, which is located in southern Ethiopia, was selected as the study area. This is typical of areas in Africa with high demand for water and limited availability of well data. Using a non-time-series database of 75 boreholes, machine learning models including multiple linear regression, multivariate adaptive regression spline, artificial neural networks, random forest regression, and gradient boosting regression (GBR) were constructed to predict the depth to the water table. 20 independent variables were considered in the models. GBR performed the best of the approaches with an average 0.77 R-squared value on testing data. Finally, a map of predicted water levels in the Bilate watershed was created based on the best model with water levels ranging from 1.6 to 245.9 meters. With the limited set of borehole data, the results show a clear signal that can provide guidance for borehole drilling decisions for sustainable irrigation with additional implications for drinking water.

Production and transport of reactive species through plasma-liquid interactions plays a significant role in multiple applications in biomedicine, environment, and agriculture. We experimentally investigated the transport mechanisms of hydrogen peroxide H2O2 and ozone O3, as the typical plasma species, into water. We measured the solvation of gaseous H2O2 and O3 in airflow into water bulk vs. electrosprayed microdroplets while changing the gas and water flow rates, applied voltage that determines the gas-liquid interface area, and treatment time. The solvation rate of H2O2 and O3 increased with the treatment time and the gas-liquid interface area. The total surface area of the electrosprayed microdroplets was larger than that of the bulk, but their lifetime was much shorter. We estimated that only microdroplets with diameters below ~ 40 µm could achieve the saturation by O3 during their lifetime, while the saturation by H2O2 was impossible due to its depletion from air. Besides the short-lived flying microdroplets, the longer-lived bottom microdroplets substantially contributed to H2O2 and O3 solvation in water electrospray. This study contributes to a better understanding of the gaseous H2O2 and O3 transport into water as a function of different parameters and will lead to design optimization of the plasma-liquid interaction systems.

The goods and services produced by forest vegetation ecosystem are the driving force for the rapid, high-quality and sustainable development of human society. In history, with the increase of population and economic development, there is an increasing demand for the quantity and variety of forest vegetation ecosystem products and services in a country or a region. To meet the demands, most of the original forest has become farmland, plantation and grass and crops land. As a result, the plant water relationship changed from equilibrium to non-equilibrium, which easily led to soil drought, soil degradation and vegetation decline in dry years or waste of soil water in rainy years in most of water-limited regions. In order to solve the question and realize the sustainable utilization of soil water resources and the high-quality sustainable development of forest, it is necessary to apply the limit theory of plant utilization of soil water resources and the vegetation carrying capacity theory in the critical period of plant-water relationship regulation to adjust the relationship between plant growth and soil moisture to obtain the maximum yield and benefit and realize high-quality and sustainable development.

The main focus of this work is to extend the knowledge about the complexity of issues of oxidative stress. Natural compounds play a serious role in multiple aspects of both human, leading to clear health-promoting effects. This work is focused on the potential application cosmetic formulations containing including but not limited to of clove water and isolated clove oils on their aid in the control of the diseases. The aim of our work was to prepare to evaluate cosmetic formulations containing clove oil, eugenol or new eugenol ester derivative (eugenyl dichloroacetate - EDChA) but also cosmetic formulations containing the aqueous phase obtained after separation of essential oil following the clove buds steam distillation. To evaluate the antioxidants transdermal delivery system, in vitro permeation experiments in a Franz diffusion cell were performed using pig skin. The antioxidative capacity of the cosmetic formulations obtained was determined by the DPPH free radical reduction method. In the next stage, the antioxidant activity (DPPH, ABTS, and Folin–Ciocalteu methods) of the fluid that penetrated through pig skin and of the fluid obtained after skin extraction, were also evaluated. For comparison, studies of cosmetic formulation containing alone dichloroacetic acid (DChAA) were as well carried out. The obtained cosmetic formulations were characterized by of antioxidant activity estimated after 24 hours of conducting the experiment, which indicates long-term protection against reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the deeper layers of the skin. The results of this work contribute to the development of cosmetic formulations with antioxidant potential, emphasizing that the water phases are waste from the process of cloves steam distillation and are not used to prepare cosmetic formulations. The use of waste water from the clove buds steam distillation process is environmentally friendly and not allows us to waste, containing however valuable biologically active compounds (furfural, methyl salicylate, 4-allilofenol, eugenol, α- and β-caryophyllene, eugenyl acetate, β-caryophyllene oxide). Together, these results suggest that cosmetic formulations may be potential drug candidates for chemopreventive, antineoplastic and antimutagenic therapy.

The European Union Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC; WFD) aims to achieve a good ecological and chemical status of all bodies of surface water by 2027. The development of an integrated guidance on surface water chemical monitoring (e.g. WFD Guidance Document No. 7/19) has been transferred into national German law (Ordinance for the Protection of Surface Waters, OGewV). For the majority of compounds, this act requires a monthly sampling frequency to assess the chemical water quality status of a surface water body. To evaluate the representativeness of the sampling strategy under the OGewV, high-frequency online monitoring data is investigated under different sampling scenarios and compared with current, monthly grab sampling strategy. About 23 million data points were analyzed for this study, three chemical parameters (dissolved oxygen, nitrate-nitrogen, chloride concentration) and discharge data were selected from four catchment of different sizes ranging from 51391 km² to 84 km² (Elbe, Vereinigte Mulde, Neiße and two stations at Lockwitzbach). In this paper we proposed short-term online-monitoring (STOM) as a sampling alternative. STOM considers the placement of online sensors over a limited duration and return interval. In general we: (I) compare the results of conventional grab sampling with STOM, (II) investigate the different performance of STOM and grab sampling using discharge data as proxy for analyzing event-mobilized pollutants and (III) investigate the related uncertainties and costs of both sampling methods. Results show, that STOM outperforms grab sampling for parameters where minimum/maximum concentrations are required by law as the probability to catch a single extreme value is higher with STOM. Furthermore, parameters showing a pronounced diurnal pattern, like dissolved oxygen, are also captured considerably better. The performance of STOM showed no substantial improvements for parameters with small concentration variability, as nitrogen-nitrate The analysis of discharge events as a proxy parameter for event-mobilized pollutants proved that the probability of capturing samples during events is significantly increased by STOM.

Groundwater represents a pivotal asset in conserving natural water reservoirs for potable consumption, irrigation, and diverse industrial uses. Nevertheless, human activities intertwined with industry and agriculture contribute significantly to groundwater contamination, highlighting the critical necessity to appraise water quality for safe drinking and effective irrigation. This research primarily focused on employing the Water Quality Index (WQI) to gauge water's appropriateness for these purposes. However, the generation of an accurate WQI can prove time-intensive owing to potential errors in sub-index calculations. In response to this challenge, an artificial intelligence (AI) forecasting model was devised, aiming to streamline the process while mitigating errors. The study collected 422 data samples from Mirpurkash, a city nestled in the province of Sindh, for a comprehensive exploration of the region's WQI attributes. Furthermore, the study probed into unraveling the interdependencies amidst variables in the physiochemical analysis of water. Diverse machine learning classifiers were employed for WQI prediction, with findings revealing that random forest and gradient boosting eclipsed other algorithms, achieving an accuracy rate of 99%. In close pursuit were SVM and XGBoost, registering accuracy scores of approximately 95% and 93%, respectively, while KNN and Decision Trees garnered accuracy rates of 88% and 87%, respectively. In addition to WQI prediction, the study conducted an uncertainty analysis of the models using the R-factor, providing insights into the reliability and consistency of predictions. This dual approach, combining accurate WQI prediction with uncertainty assessment, contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of water quality in Mirpurkash and enhances the reliability of decision-making processes related to groundwater utilization

The increasing demand for water resources in urban areas, such as Bangladesh, due to population growth is a significant concern. One potential solution under consideration is the use of air conditioning (AC) condensate water. A study conducted at the European University of Bangladesh (EUB) focused on assessing the quality and quantity of AC condensate water from various systems. The results indicate that the collected water generally adhered to the quality standards established for drinking and household use in Bangladesh. Parameters such as pH (averaging 6.8), turbidity (1.08 NTU), total dissolved solids (TDS) (averaging 219 mg/L), iron content (0 mg/L), alkalinity (averaging 41.67 mg/L), arsenic (0 mg/L), chemical oxygen demand (COD) (averaging 3.67 mg/L), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) (averaging 1.33 mg/L), chloride content (averaging 30.77 mg/L), and other factors were evaluated. Moreover, the AC units at EUB, varying in cooling capacity (1 ton, 2 tons, and 4 tons), produced substantial monthly volumes of 96, 177, and 354 liters of condensate water, respectively. This underscores the potential of AC condensate water as a valuable resource for addressing urban water scarcity. As a result, there is a pressing need for local decision-makers and policymakers to establish well-defined guidelines for the effective utilization of AC condensate water to mitigate water scarcity issues in urban areas.

A very important role in determining the quality of water is the assessment of its microbiological quality. Water quality control, which could pose a direct threat to human health and life, is performed in the case of water produced at the water treatment plants, tap water or water in swimming pools. However, these traditional methods used to assess its quality are laborious and time consuming. In emergency and incidental situations, in the era of terrorist threats, the need for quick, reliable and reproducible microbiological determinations seems to be essential. In this study, an attempt was made to compare various methods of assessing the microbiological quality of water. The assessment was carried out for waters with different microbiological characteristics: surface waters, rainwater, groundwater, and water supply. The evaluation was carried out using traditional culture methods and high-speed methods: flow cytometry and luminometry. The analysis of microbiological parameters were the basis for the statistical analysis. The conducted microbiological analysis of various types of water, along with their statistical evaluation, showed different dependencies for each of the analysed waters.

Within this paper, a machine learning algorithm is used to investigate the importance of certain setpoints and parameters in the filtration processes of a large-scale water treatment facility. Previously, a model for the filtration process based on Run-to-Run Control was proposed and tested against sample data from the treatment plant, but it was quickly found that such a model was incompatible for successfully computing setpoints of operation which minimize the energy cost of running the filtration systems. The machine learning model described herein is an attempt to elucidate the importance of the available data on the filtration systems and to identify the most important variables that influence the filtration run time.

With permafrost degenerating caused by climate change, water accumulation increases in permafrost regions during last decades. Water accumulation will deteriorate existing status of engineering in cold regions. Water accumulation can make a thermal effect on permafrost under construction, even result in failure of the subgrade. Moreover, the thermal effect is related to water temperature. However, temperature variation of water accumulation is complex, and its influence factors include air temperature, environment, scope of water accumulation and so on. In order to make analysis of the damage mechanism of water accumulation on permafrost, it is necessary to explore the internal temperature change of water accumulation. This paper proposes a review about temperature calculation method of water accumulation in cold environment. The thermal calculation method between air and water boundary of water accumulation is summarized. Water temperature change of water accumulation with various type is analyzed. The thermal calculation considering phase transformation in water accumulation is discussed, and heat transfer from the bottom of water accumulation to the underlying soil is further studied. Finally, the key factors which are advantageous to make research about the thermal effect of water accumulation in permafrost is proposed to optimize calculation method.

Since the second half of the second millennium AD, water management among the Chagga people of Kilimanjaro in Tanzania has involved community collaboration in the construction, ownership and management of water infrastructure. Chagga settlement on the lower slopes of Kilimanjaro transformed the landscape significantly to reflect an agrarian society characterised by decentralised forms of socio-political and economic organisation. Such organization involved conception, construction, and post-construction management of water distribution systems, constituting high-level socio-political complexity. The study employs ethnography, archaeological surveys and GIS to document water infrastructures on the lower slopes of Kilimanjaro. We conclude that community collaboration was key in management of the water infrastructure and by extension, agriculture, which sustained Chagga and chiefdoms for centuries.

Rocks are materials with a wide variety of structures and properties. These can be unprocessed conglomerates of conglomerated minerals as well as crystallized outcrop or metamorphic rocks. Their processing, especially shaping, poses many technological difficulties. Therefore, it is very important to answer the question of how these natural materials yield to high-pressure water jet and abrasive water. It is equally important to determine the effect of key process parameters such as pressure, water nozzle diameter and feed rate on cutting efficiency. The first two parameters determine the water output and power of the jet, while the third determines the jet erosion time per unit volume of material. Their interdependence, using appropriate evaluation indicators, allows to determine the energy intensity of processing and directions for its minimization.

This study looks at the application of delayed action Passive InfraRed (PIR) sensors in the control of water use for urinal flushing. In this we briefly review the literature on urinal controls before reviewing four different approaches to PIR urinal controls. Existing literature discusses some of the pros and cons of different types of urinal control. However, the literature doesn’t consider the marked differences that can occur within individual approaches, based on the way controls operate. This study was initiated at the University of Surrey during 2019 following a water saving audit, in an attempt to bring down what had been identified as one of the largest users of water. This paper therefore aims to identify the most effective way to reduce water consumption of urinal systems, through retro-fitting PIR control systems within the variety of settings found across university campuses. This paper also reviews the different reductions achieved over periods of different levels of use, linked to term time, holidays, Covid-19 related lockdowns, and the ‘new normal’. It found that grouped delayed action flushing was the most effective form of urinal control for reducing water use. The delayed action, grouped PIR sensors, achieved between, a 59-64% adjusted reduction against the control group during non-Covid19 periods, and a 35% reduction against the control group during lockdowns.

Turbulence is a fluid dynamic problem refractory to mathematical treatment. Examining a theoretical model of liquid water flowing in a cylinder at different Raleigh numbers, we propose a novel approach to elucidate the first stages of turbulent flows. The weakly bonded molecular assemblies of liquid water form a fluctuating branched polymer in which every micro-cluster displays different density. Against the common view of liquid water as an incompressible and continuous fluid, we suggest that the occurrence of transient local aggregates could be able to generate the vortices and eddies that are the hallmarks of turbulence. We quantify the local changes in velocity, diameter and density required to engender “obstacles” to the average flow. Then, we show how these microstructures, equipped with different Raleigh numbers and characterized by high percolation index, could generate boundary layers that contribute to micro-vortices production. We conclude that the genesis of turbulence cannot be assessed in terms of collective phenomena, rather is sustained, among many other factors, by the underrated microscopic inhomogeneities of fluids like liquid water.

Stable isotope concentrations in the soil, rain and ground water have been used to trace the water extraction zones of plants in different environments. The need to identify the plant water use by plants in afforestation programs to control desertification increases the importance of sap water partitioning of plants in sand dune areas. However, the introduction of new plant covers exerts pressure on the water resources and can affect the local soil water conditions. In this study, we analyzed the isotope concentrations in rain, soil, sap, and ground water after the summer of 2010. Two experimental plots established in the Hailiutu catchment (Shaanxi province, northwest China) were selected to gather the water samples between September and October 2010. One plot is dominated by Salix bushes (Salix psammophila C. Wang \& Chang Y. Yang) and the other by the tree species Willow (Salix matsudana Koidz.). The total precipitation at the experimental site was 401 mm/yr during 2010, while 88.7 mm was collected in total for the period September to October. Willow trees transpired 12.82 kg/d being almost three times larger than Salix shrubs (4.57 kg/d). Despite the transpiration rates of both plant species and the few rain events in the region, the soil water beneath the plant covers is not depleted. Stable isotope signature of soil water beneath both covers shows the fractionation front in Salix at 20 cm depth and at Willow at 40 cm depth. However, soil water signature is closer to the groundwater than the collected rain water.

For decades, the Ébrié Lagoon in Côte d'Ivoire has been the receptacle of wastewater effluent and household waste transported by runoff water. This work assesses the spatio-temporal variability of the Ébrié lagoon water quality at the city of Abidjan. The methodological approach used in this study is summarized in three stages: the choice and standardization of the parameters for assessing water quality for uses such as aquaculture, irrigation, watering, and sports and recreation; the weighting of these parameters using the Hierarchical Analysis Process (AHP) of Saaty; and finally, the aggregation of the weighted parameters or factors. Physicochemical and microbiological analysis data on the waters of the Ébrié lagoon for June and December of 2014 and 2015 were provided by the Ivorian Center for Anti-Pollution (Centre Ivoirien Anti-Pollution, CIAPOL) and the concentrations of trace elements in sediments (As, Cd, Cr, Pb, Zn) were used. The aggregation of standardized and weighted parameters allowed the determination of the Water Quality Indices (WQI) by usage for each bays of the lagoon. The results show that in both 2014 and 2015, the waters of the Ébrié lagoon were generally of poor quality for the different uses examined in this study (aquaculture, irrigation, watering and sport and recreation) with an accentuation in 2015. However, some bays of the lagoon have waters of dubious to satisfactory quality. This study contributes an improved evaluation of the Ébrié lagoon waters.

This study estimates rainfall interception losses from natural wetland ecosystems based on maximum canopy storage measurements. Rainfall interception losses play an important role in water balance, which is crucial in wetlands, and has not yet been thoroughly studied in relation to this type of ecosystem. Maximum canopy storage was measured using the weight method. Based on these measurements, daily values of interception losses were estimated and then used to calculate long term interception losses based on precipitation and potential evapotranspiration data for the 1971–2015 period. Depending mainly on the number of days with precipitation, the results show that total interception losses for the growing season as well as monthly interception losses are around 13% of gross rainfall. This value is similar to the values observed for some forests. Hence, interception losses should not be disregarded in hydrologic models of wetlands, especially because data trends in meteorological conditions (mainly number of days with precipitation) show that interception losses will increase in the future if those trends stay the same.

There is a balanced plant-water relationship in the primary vegetation of desert area. With the increase of population and social development in desert areas, people’s need for forest vegetation ecosystem’s goods and service have been changed. To meet the growing demand for plant community goods and services, more original vegetation has been changed into non-native vegetation such as in China loess plateau. However, with the plant growth, sometime soil drying happens and then becomes gradually serious with times in most of desert regions. Serious drying of soil eventually result in soil degradation, vegetation decline and agriculture failure，which influence the produce and supply of forest vegetation goods and service in market in dry year or waste of soil water resources in wet year, which wastes precious nature resources. In order to solve these problems, the soil water resources have to be used in sustainable way and plant-water relationship have to be regulated on Carrying Capacity of Soil Water for Vegetation in the key period of plant water relationship regulation, to carry out sustainable use of nature resources, high-quality and sustainable development of forest and grass or high-quality produce of fruit and crop in desert re-gions.

Radical reactions in water or aqueous media are important for organic synthesis, realizing high yielding processes under non-toxic and environmentally friendly conditions. This overview includes (i) a general introduction to organic chemistry in water and aqueous media, (ii) synthetic approaches in-, on- and with-water as well as in heterogeneous phase, (iii) reaction of carbon-centered radicals with water (or deuterium oxide) activated through coordination with various Lewis acids, (iv) photocatalysis in water and aqueous media, and (v) synthetic applications bioinspired from naturally occurring processes. A wide range of chemical processes and synthetic strategies under different experimental conditions have been reviewed that lead to important functional group translocation and transformation reactions, leading to the preparation of complex molecules. These results reveal how water as a solvent/medium/reagent in radical chemistry has matured over the last two decades and how further discoveries are foreseen to come in the near future.

Drought-induced plant mortality has increased globally during the last decades and is forecasted to influence global vegetation dynamics. Timely information on plant water dynamics is essential for understanding and anticipating drought-induced plant mortality. The most common metric that has been used for decades for measuring water stress is leaf water potential (Ψ_L), which is measured destructively. To obtain information on water dynamics from trees and forested landscapes, remote sensing methods have been developed. However, the spatial and temporal resolution of the existing methods have limited our understanding of water dynamics and diurnal variation of Ψ_L within single trees. Thus, we investigated the capability of terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) intensity in observing diurnal variation in Ψ_L during a 50 hour monitoring period and aimed to improve understanding on how large part of the diurnal variation in Ψ_L can be captured using intensity observations. We found that TLS intensity at 905 nm wavelength was able to explain 78% of the variation in Ψ_L for three trees of two tree species with a root-mean square error of 0.137 MPa. Based on our experiment with three trees, time-series of TLS intensity measurements can be used in detecting changes in Ψ_L, and thus it is worthwhile to expand the investigations to cover a wider range of tree species and forests and further increase our understanding of plant water dynamics at wider spatial and temporal scales.

The aim of this research involves investigating the elimination of nitrogen ions from groundwater through the application of dynamic permeable reactive barriers (PRB) utilizing A400-nZVI. The aim also implyies determining barrier parameters, as well as assessing the overall retention capacity of nitrogen ions through percolation with a potassium nitrate solution. The research involves obtaining zero valent iron nanoparticles (nZVI), which were synthesized and doped onto an anionic resin support material (A400) through the reduction reaction of ferrous ions with sodium borohydride (NaBH4). This was achieved by preparing a ferrous sulfate solution, contacting it with the ion exchange resin at various solid-liquid mass ratios, and gradually adding sodium borohydride under continuous stirring in an oxygen-free environment to create the A400-nZVI barrier. The outcomes of this study, focusing on the development of permeable reactive barriers composed of nanovalent iron and ion exchangers, demonstrate significant potential in purification processes when appropriately dimensioned. The research specifically evaluated the efficacy of NO3- removal using the A400-nZVI permeable reactive barrier, conducting laboratory tests that simulated a naturally stratified aquifer with high nitrate contamination.

Nephrolithiasis affects around 10% of the population and is frequently associated with impaired dietary factors. The first one is insufficient fluid intake inducing reduced urine volume, urine supersaturation, and subsequently urinary lithiasis. Kidneys regulate 24-hour urine volume, which, under physiological conditions, approximately reflect daily fluid intake. Increasing fluid intake has a preventive effect on the risk of developing a first kidney stone (primary prevention) but also decreases the risk of stone recurrence (secondary prevention). Current guidelines recommend increasing fluid intake at least at 2.5L /day to prevent stone formation, and even at 3.5-4L in some severe forms of nephrolithiasis (primary or enteric hyperoxaluria or cystinuria). Fluid intake must also be balanced between day and night, to avoid urinary supersaturation during the night. Patients should be informed and supported in this difficult process of increasing urine dilution, with practical ways and daily routines to increase their fluid intake. The liquid of choice is water, which should be chosen depending on its composition (such as calcium, bicarbonate or magnesium content). Finally, some additional advices have to be given to avoid some beverages such as those containing fructose or phosphoric acid, which are susceptible to increase the risk of nephrolithiasis.

A biofilm is any syntrophic consortium of microorganisms in which cells adhere to one another and, in some cases, to a surface. These adherent cells become encased in a slimy extracellular matrix made up of extracellular polymeric substances (EPSs). Until now, the use of commercial disinfectants remains the main strategy to control biofilm-mediated problems. This mini review summarizes common antibiofilm mode of actions taken by disinfectants and how water channels in microbial biofilms contribute to disinfectant resistance.

This research was conducted to analyze the content of Fe, Cu, Cd, Cr, and Pb in several species of fish taken from three lakes that is closely to disposal of industrial waste in Indonesia. The fish samples were taken from three lakes, namely, Muara Angke, Weda, and Morowali. The samples from Morowali were analyzed in April 2019, those from Weda from November to December 2019, and those from Muara Angke in June 2018. All the samples were then analyzed at the chemistry laboratory of the Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Science, University of Indonesia, and the Integrated Laboratory of IPB. The results showed that all types of fish from Morowali and Weda were no longer safe to consume because they contained Fe, Cu, Cd, and Cr exceeding the threshold of metal contamination. Meanwhile, all types of fish from Muara Angke, except for ayam-ayam, are still safe for consumption. The results of this study can be a source of information regarding metal content in fish and fish feed for safe consumption. Several studies have been done to determine the metal pollutants contained by fish. Given the high consumption rate of fish and the hazards of heavy metals on humans’ health, such research must be furthered

The Delaware River has made a marked recovery in the half-century since the adoption of the Delaware River Basin Commission (DRBC) Compact in 1961 and passage of the Federal Clean Water Act amendments during the 1970s. During the 1960s, the DRBC set a 3.5 mg/l dissolved oxygen criteria for the river based on an economic analysis that concluded a waste load abatement program designed to meet fishable water quality goals would generate significant recreation and environmental benefits. Scientists with the Delaware Estuary Program have recently called for raising the 1960s DO criteria along the Delaware River from 3.5 mg/l to 5.0 mg/l to protect anadromous American shad and Atlantic sturgeon and address the prospect of rising temperatures, sea levels, and salinity in the estuary. This research concludes through a marginal abatement cost (MAC) analysis that it would be cost effective to raise DO levels to meet a more stringent standard by prioritizing agricultural conservation and wastewater treatment investments in the Delaware River watershed to reduce 90% of the pollutant load 13.6 million kg/year of nitrogen (30 million lb/year) for $160 million at 35% of the $449 million annual cost. The annual least cost to reduce nitrogen loads and raise dissolved oxygen levels to meet more stringent water quality standards in the Delaware River totals $45 million for atmospheric NOX reduction, $130 million for wastewater treatment, $132 million for agriculture conservation, and $141 million for urban stormwater retrofitting. This 21st century least cost analysis estimates that $50 million/year is needed to reduce pollutant loads in the Delaware River to raise dissolved oxygen levels to 4.0 mg/l, $150 million/year is needed to reach 4.5 mg/l, and $449 million/year is needed to reach 5.0 mg/l.

Water sustainability has become one of the most severe issues in the 21st Century due to dramatic urban population growth and climate change. This paper reviews some of the critical key water issues that need to be considered/incorporated in the quest for water sustainability for the upcoming decades. The purpose is to recognize the critical circumstances for maintaining water sustainability and recognize that many regions in the world have passed the ‘tipping point’ of balancing their water sustainability and failing to realize that restoring sustainability will be extremely difficult. From the water quantity perspective, several examples are used to demonstrate situations which, in hindsight, have been initially shown to be effective but highly problematic in the long term. The review considers, amongst others, the 1960s India example shows that an agricultural ‘success’ starting in the 1960s has subsequently become an environmental disaster. Additional issues, including the impacts of dietary adjustments, upstream diversions raising downstream shortfalls, and transfers of water from agriculture to urban areas, are examples that demonstrate that to achieve water sustainability, lessons must be learned from the past, and adaptive measures must be adopted to help humanity avoid adverse and irreversible environmental tragedies. Government authorities can learn from this critical review of some approaches and realize their responsibility to proactively promote better water resource management strategies (domestic and international collaborations) and strictly regulate water use practices to better manage water sustainability.

Indigenous Peoples in Canada have shown great strength and resilience in maintaining their cultures and ways of life to date in the face of settler colonialism. Centering the water crises within Indigenous sovereignty and self-determination, we explore the impacts these crises are having on community members. Particularly, the continuous failure of the Canadian government to end the water crises in remote Indigenous communities, Star Blanket Cree Nation, is investigated in this paper. What implications have these water governance gaps had on Indigenous Peoples’ sovereignty and self-determination? We adopted an Indigenist theoretical framework to guide the study. Additionally, a community-based participatory research approach was adopted. To achieve our research goals of investigating the implications of the current water crises for Indigenous sovereignty and self-determination, specific methods of sharing circles were used to gather knowledge from community members, Elders, and knowledge keepers. The research findings strongly highlight the strength and resilience shown by remote Indigenous communities in the face of the current water crises and continuous government failure. Solving the current water crises will involve remote Indigenous communities taking charge of their own water governance through Indigenous-led water governance systems. Additionally, taking steps to rebuild trust through genuine reconciliation will be key. Therefore, listening to remote Indigenous communities and taking collaborative action is fundamental.

In Mexico, the evaluations of environmental flows are regulated by the Mexican Norm NMX-AA-159-SCFI-2012 and they warrant the establishment of water reserves for the environment. Yet, the pressure for water use limits the establishment of said reserves. This research aimed to evaluate the changes through time of the variables that serve as a basis for the implementation strategy by the Mexican government. A geographical information system was built with updated variables, the desired conservation status was analyzed, and the potential reserves were estimated based on the reference values for all basins nationwide. The results were examined according to their historical, current, and potential contribution to the conservation of natural protected areas and their connectivity. The outcomes point towards an administrative implementation strategy with positive outcomes despite the growing pressure for water use, with a change rate higher than the one for the creation of new protected areas. Currently, basins with low pressure and high conservation value have the potential to contribute to 86–88% of the goal set by the present administration without affecting water availability. Finally, reserving water in the priority basins would guarantee the legal protection of the flow regime in 48–50% of the hydrographic network in a desired conservation status, 45–49% of wetlands of international importance, and other natural protected areas in 85–89% of the global ecoregions represented in Mexico.

Recreational water activities are widely recognized to have a positive impact on our physical and mental well-being. However, recreational water sources and their management are also a risk factor for human health, due to different agents, including the overgrowth of cyanobacteria and algae. These organisms have the potential to metabolize organic matter and produce thermophilic and thermotolerant toxins. Different species of algae participate in biofilm formation and impact on maintenance of equipment for water treatment. We reviewed the state of the art by providing basic definitions, taxonomy and the epidemiological and clinical issues related to the recreational uses of waters. Methods for treatments and monitoring are summarized, considering both traditional and innovative strategies. Public health and surveillance perspectives impose to focus on the detection of toxins, the formation of biofilms, the understanding of the benthonic and planktonic components as part of a larger microbial biodiversity.

Cambodia faces the challenge of managing excess water during the wet season and insufficient water during the dry season. This harms human life and endangers aquatic and natural resources, agricultural practices, and food security. In order to ensure the well-being of both people and food security, water governance is crucial. However, Cambodia's water governance is hindered by various obstacles, including sectoral and centralized influences, top-down and large-scale strategies, a lack of coordination among relevant agencies, and limited involvement of local communities. This study delves into water governance across different sectors, from centralized to community-based natural resources management to tackle these challenges. Through analyzing literature and case studies of farmer water user communities (FWUC), community fisheries (CFis), and community fish refuges (CFRs) in three Mekong Delta provinces in Cambodia, the study concludes that although water governance has improved, it has resulted in a decline in fishery resources from rivers and water bodies and an increase in water conflicts among farmers and sectors in the face of climate change. To enhance water governance in Cambodia, it is critical to integrate it at the district level. This will promote sustainable water use and management across the country and pave the way for a brighter future.

We investigate if anyone is being left behind in accessing safely managed drinking water (SM) in achieving the 2030 agenda. We use 23 countries grouped globally as critically insecure water (CIWC). The results indicate none of the CIWC had over 50% of the population accessing SM, N. America and Europe had highest percentages while Sub Saharan Africa had the least. People left behind are found in rural areas, in countries vulnerable to climate change because of poor governance, low-income, and women’s low education. Institutional quality, equity and equality should be improved in using resources critical to leaving no one behind.

In this study, we investigated water transparency estimation models in the hypertrophic lagoon of the Albufera of Valencia using Sentinel-2 images. Water transparency, a crucial environmental indicator, was assessed via Secchi disk depth (ZSD) measurements. Three optical models (R490/R560, R490/R705, R560/R705) were explored to establish a robust algorithm for ZSD estimation. Through extensive field sampling and laboratory analyses, weekly data spanning 2018 to 2023 were collected, including water transparency, temperature, conductivity, and chlorophyll-a concentration. Remote sensing imagery from the Sentinel-2 mission was employed, and images were processed using SNAP software. The R560/R705 model, calibrated for turbid lakes, emerged as the most suitable. The algorithm's calibration was validated with high correlation coefficients (R2) in both calibration (0.6149) and validation (0.916) phases, demonstrating the model's accuracy in estimating ZSD. This new algorithm significantly outperformed a previous approach, highlighting the importance of tailoring algorithms to specific water body characteristics. The study contributes to improved water quality assessment and resource management, underscoring the value of remote sensing in environmental research.

The municipal water supply, related mainly to the cities of Albanian, began to develop in the second half of the 19th century and much intensively after 1945. Today the reported mean water production for the cities, on average, is about 300 l/capita/d including drinking and industrial water supply. The territory of Albania consists of uneven distribution of very heterogeneous aquifers conditioning the reach variety of the municipal water supply solutions. In this article are analyzed and classified the hydrogeological aspects of water supply sources of the settlements, which are summarized in five groups: (a) Wells in alluvial intergranular aquifers; (b) karst springs; (c) wells in karst aquifers; (d) springs in fissured rocks, and (e) mixed water sources. For each group of the water supply sources the main concerns regarding the quantity and quality problems are analyzed facilitated by the description of a variety of representative examples of different situations. Based on the gained experience important recommendation are given for the better understanding of hydrogeological aspects of water supply systems emphasizing the problematics along the river water recharge areas and on the seawater intrusion in coastal aquifers, as well as on transboundary aquifers. However, the main problems of public water supply of Albania remain the poor management of water supply systems which is reflected in the e high water losses, as well as the low public awareness of request for sustainable use.

Differences in the physical and chemical properties of reclaimed water (RW) and natural surface water (SW) lead to the differences in terms of nitrogen and phosphorus release when pipeline sediments enter these water bodies. The nitrogen and phosphorus release kinetics from pipe sediments with different particle sizes have been investigated. The results demonstrated that both SW and RW had a pH buffering effect after sediment addition, and the final pH (approximately 8.1) of RW was lower. The release of total phosphorus (TP) and ammonia nitrogen ( NH₄⁺-N) fitted the first-order kinetic model where the release of TP reached equilibrium; TP release was inhibited in both SW and RW, where RW exhibited the lowest (by a factor of 1.23~2.44) release (0.002 mg/g). The release of NH4+-N was promoted in both SW and RW; the maximum release in RW was 0.0188 mg/g. The amounts of NH₄⁺-N released in SW and RW were 1.02-1.40 and 1.30-1.80 times that of the control group (CG), respectively. The percentage of TP and NH₄⁺-N release in the three groups was highest in 75-154 μm pipe sediment, reaching 34.53% and 43.51% in SW and RW, respectively. These results can assist in the development of water quality evolution models for specific urban scenarios, and provide important guidance for the precise regulation of recharge water quality during and after rainfall.

Multivariate predictive analysis of the Stream-Water (SW) parameters (discharge, water level, temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, turbidity, and specific conductance) is a pivotal task in the field of water resource management during the era of rapid climate change. The highly dynamic and evolving nature of the meteorological and climatic features have a significant impact on the temporal distribution of the SW variables in recent days making the SW variables forecasting even more complicated for diversified water-related issues. To predict the SW variables, various physics-based numerical models are used using numerous hydrologic parameters. Extensive lab-based investigation and calibration are required to reduce the uncertainty involved in those parameters. However, in the age of data-informed analysis and prediction, several deep learning algorithms showed satisfactory performance in dealing with sequential data. In this research, a comprehensive Explorative Data Analysis (EDA) and feature engineering were performed to prepare the dataset to obtain the best performance of the predictive model. Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) neural network regression model is trained using over several years of daily data to predict the SW variables up to one week ahead of time (lead time) with satisfactory performance. The performance of the proposed model is found highly adequate through the comparison of the predicted data with the observed data, visualization of the distribution of the errors, and a set of error matrices. Higher performance is achieved through the increase in the number of epochs and hyperparameter tuning. This model can be transferred to other locations with proper feature engineering and optimization to perform univariate predictive analysis and potentially be used to perform real-time SW variables prediction.

Clean production of renewable fuels is a great challenge of our scientific community. Iridium complexes have demonstrated a superior catalytic activity in the water oxidation (WO) reaction, which is a crucial step in water splitting process. Herein we have used a defective zirconium MOF with UiO-66 structure as support of a highly active Ir complex based on EDTA with formula [Ir(HEDTA)Cl]Na. The defects are induced by the partial substitution of tereftalic acid with smaller formiate groups. Anchoring of the complex occurs through a post-synthetic exchange of formiate anions, coordinated at the zirconium clusters of the MOF, with the free carboxylate group of the [Ir(HEDTA)Cl]-complex. The modified material was tested as heterogenous catalyst for the WO reaction by using Cerium Ammonium Nitrate as sacrificial agent. Although TOF and TON values are comparable to those of other iridium heterogenized catalysts, the MOF exhibits iridium leaching not limited at the first catalytic run, as usually observed, suggesting a lack of stability of the hybrid system under strong oxidative conditions.

Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) is an invasive species that has modified ecosystem functioning in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta (Delta), California, USA. Studies in lakes and rivers have shown that water hyacinth alters water quality. In tidal systems, such as the Delta, water moves back and forth through the water hyacinth patch so water quality directly outside the patch in either direction is likely to be impacted. In this study, we asked whether the presence or treatment of water hyacinth with herbicides resulted in changes in water quality in this tidal system. We combined existing datasets that were originally collected for permit compliance and long-term regional monitoring into a dataset that we analyzed with a before-after control-impact (BACI) framework. This approach allowed us to describe effects of presence and treatment of water hyacinth, while accounting for seasonal patterns in water quality. We found that although effects of treatment were not detectable when compared with water immediately upstream, dissolved oxygen and turbidity became more similar to regional water quality averages after treatment. Temperature became less similar to the regional average after treatment, but the magnitude of the change was small. Taken together, these results suggest that tidal hydrology exports the effects of water hyacinth upstream, just as river flow is known to transport the effects downstream, creating a buffer of altered water chemistry around patches. It also suggests that although water hyacinth has an effect on dissolved oxygen and turbidity, these parameters recover to regional averages after treatment.

Water pollution associated with flooding is one of the major problems in cities in the global South. However, studies of water quality dynamics during flood events are not often reported in literature, probably due to difficult conditions for sampling during flood events. Water quality parameters in open water (canals, rivers, and lakes), floodwater on roads and water in sewers have been monitored during the extreme fluvial flood event on 7 October 2013 in Can Tho city, Vietnam. This is the pioneering study of urban flood water pollution in real time in Vietnam. The results showed that water quality is very dynamic during flooding, especially at the beginning of the event. In addition, it was observed that the pathogen and contaminant levels in the floodwater are almost as high as in sewers. The findings show that population exposed to flood water runs a health risk that is nearly equal to that of being in contact with sewer water. Therefore the people of Can Tho not only face physical risk due to flooding, but also exposed to health risk.

An adequate representation of the water infiltration process in the soil allows improving the efficiency in application and the uniformity in surface irrigation. The Green and Ampt model has shown a good representation of the process, and researchers from the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) determined the values of their parameters for soils of that country, which are shown in tables or through functional relationships and this information is used as reference in several parts of the world, although there is no certainty that they are representative of the soils in Mexico. In this study, the parameters of the Green & Ampt equation were determined and evaluated in some soils of agricultural importance in Mexico. The parameters were obtained in four ways: one of them applied a methodology adapted from Brooks and Corey to quantify the wetting front capillary pressure head and used an permeameter under constant hydraulic head to determine the saturated hydraulic conductivity, and the other three consisted in taking them from three studies reported by the USDA. The values of the parameters suggested in Mexico drastically underestimated the results with relative errors (RE) in a range of -49.0 to -94.0% and the most representative were those obtained with the methodology proposed in this research with RE of -15.0 to 6.0%.

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) play a pivotal role in cellular function, and their overproduction contributes to oxidative stress, fatigue, aging, and diseases. To counteract these effects, incorpo-rating antioxidant-rich nutrients is recommended. Functional waters, including electrolyzed hydrogen water (EHW), are gaining attention for potential antioxidant effects through daily in-take. This study employs aquaphotomics and near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) to elucidate the molecular mechanisms behind the antioxidant activity of EHW. Previous investigation reported a 100% loss in antioxidant functionality through autoclaving, and a 40% decrease with hydrogen gas removal, prompting the current investigation into the mechanisms of antioxidant effects and especially the role of water molecular structure in it. Aquaphotomics analysis of near infrared (NIR) spectral data revealed that the primary characteristic of EHW associated with anti-radical function is presence of water solvation shells. Autoclaving and degassing led to loss of these water molecular species and a significant increase in free water molecules. The study suggests that water shells (solvation shells) in EHW play a crucial role in neutralizing ROS, although the specific ions or nanoparticles responsible for creating these shells remain unidentified. This concept aligns well with existing proposals of the crucial role of water solvation shells in ROS neutralization.

The purpose of water treatment through ultraviolet (UV) radiation is to interrupt the development and multiplication of microorganisms by preventing their growth and reproduction.Ultraviolet treatment has become a very affordable solution to produce clean water of optimal quality in regions where access to drinking water is essential. The experimental water treatment unit is powered by a photovoltaic (PV) source. It incorporates a discharge lamp used to generate ultraviolet radiation, which is harnessed to address bacteriological issues related to water quality. This lamp is continuously powered by a photovoltaic (PV) source through an inverter and an electronic ballast. The water treatment system also includes a motor pump designed to draw contaminated water from the input reservoir, a flow control valve to adjust flow rates as needed, and a filter aimed at enhancing the quality of the contaminated water. The water circulates between the input reservoir (contaminated water) and the output reservoir (treated water) through the UV lamp. The relationship between the intensity of the UV lamp and the water flow rate can ensure an adequate water quality.

The permanent protection of groundwater and surface sources of drinking water in the required raw water quality from contamination is the primary foundation of preserving the life of society and the entire engineering infrastructure operability not only in the Czech Republic but also in other countries of the world. One of the basic ways of contamination prevention enhancement and risk mitigation of putting a water source out of operation is the identification of the given risk as well as soil contamination monitoring. The purpose of this study is to understand specific aspects of contamination threats to drinking water sources and determine possible solutions to eliminate the risk, shown in the example case study in the Czech Republic conditions. Based on the findings, a proposal to enhance the prevention of water source contamination has been elaborated in the form of recommendations regarding the ways and means used to monitor the risk areas and to implement technical measures so as to eliminate or terminate the specified risk. A complex approach based on the integration of interdisciplinary factors and methodology is required to minimize the threats of aquatic ecosystems contamination in the Czech Republic.

The objective of this research was to study the dynamics of moisture and nutrition at the root zone and to quantify the variables linked to efficient water management in avocado orchards of mid and high-lands of Michoacán, México, in typical Andisols of low fertility with (A)C(w2) and C(w2) climates, respectively. Using the FDR (Frequency Domain Reflectometry) technology, the dynamics of soil moisture and salinity were recorded daily at four depths: 0-15, 15-30, 30-45, and 45-60 cm. The soil moisture balance model was used to determine actual evapotranspiration (ETr), crop coefficient (Kc), and water use efficiency (WUE). Results indicated that ETr is 66-73% of the total water at 0-30 cm depth; the fertilizer absorption is limited to 0-30 cm, being negligible at deeper layers. The water use efficiency is 4.4 to 5.6 kg of fruit m-3 of applied water, and the ratio of the water use index (ETr/irrigation sheet applied, ISA) is 0.65-0.70; while the annual avocado Kc is 0.72 in Cutzato and 0.78 in Tiamba. We concluded that avocado has a low water requirement, it does not cause leaching of nutrients and/or water, the absorption of water and nutrients mostly occurs at 30 cm depth, and from a hydrological point of view, the crop is environmentally friendly.

Aiming at the problem of low pollutant concentration in the sewage treatment plant due to external water intrusion into the sewage collection system, which in turn leads to low pollutant reduction efficiency. A sewage system in Zhenjiang City is taken as an example. Analyze the situation of external water intrusion in the sewage pipe network, and determine the external water intrusion proportion based on the water quality and quantity method. First, the dry season flow rate of the sewage pipe is obtained according to the monitoring data of the flowmeter. Then, the key research areas are screened out based on the changes in the concentration of water quality characteristic factors. Furthermore, chemical oxygen demand and electrical conductivity are used as the water quality characteristic indicators to characterize shallow groundwater and river water. In addition, the proportions of groundwater and river water intrusion in the sewage pipe network are quantitatively analyzed based on the chemical mass balance equation. At the same time, the dredging detection method is used to assist in the investigation, and finally the engineering rectification of the problems found in the drainage is carried out. The results show that the water quality and quantity method can effectively identify the types of external water and analyze the proportion of external water intrusion, which is of exemplary significance for the evaluation of sewage collection systems.

Observations collected during cold season precipitation periods at Utquagvik, Alaska and at the mul-tidisciplinary drifting observatory for study of Arctic climate (MOSAiC) are used to statistically ana-lyze relations among the atmospheric water cycle parameters including the columnar supercooled liq-uid and ice amounts (expressed as liquid water and ice water paths, i.e., LWP and IWP), the integrated water vapor (IWV) and the near-surface snowfall rate. Data come from radar and radiometer-based retrievals and from optical precipitation sensors. While correlation between snowfall rate and LWP is rather weak, correlations coefficients between radar-derived snowfall rate and IWP are high (~ 0.8), which is explained, in part, by generally low LWP/IWP ratios during significant precipitation. Corre-lation coefficients between snowfall rate and IWV are moderate (~0.45). Correlations are generally weaker if snowfall is estimated by optical sensors, which is, in part, due to blowing snow. Correlation coefficients between near-surface temperature and snowfall rates are low (r<0.3). Results from the Alaska and MOSAiC sites are generally similar. These results are not very sensitive to the amount of time averaging (e.g., 15-minute averaging versus daily averages). Observationally-based relations among the water cycle parameters are informative about atmospheric moisture conversion processes and can be used for model evaluations.

Global croplands, pastures, plantations, and human settlement areas have expanded in recent decades, accompanied by large increases in energy, water, and fertilizer consumption, along with considerable losses of biodiversity. In sub-Saharan Africa, policies are implemented without critical consideration e.g., agricultural expansions impair ecosystem services of the several river basins. The current study has studied landuse/cover and associated rate of change for four-time epochs i.e., 1991, 2001, 2011 and 2021. This employed remote sensing and GIS techniques for LULC analysis while future projection was modelled using cellular automata and Markov chain. The Kappa coefficient statistics were used to assess the accuracy of final classified image while reference images for accuracy assessment were developed based on ground truthing. Overall change results between 1991 and 2021, showed that major percentage loss in area were experienced by water, forest, woodland and wetland which decreased by 8,222Ha (44.11%), 426,161Ha (35.72%), 399,584Ha (35.01%) and 105,186Ha (34.82%). On the other hand, percentage increase in area during the same period were experienced in cultivated land, built up areas and grasslands which increased by 659,346Ha (205.28%), 11,894Ha (159.93%) and 33,547Ha (98.47%). However, even with the expanding thirsty sectors water discharged out of the catchment is on increment at a rate of 498.6 m3/s/year. For dualistic benefits, agroforest practices are recommended along with participatory law enforcement and capacity building of local communities through their institutions.

Water deficit (drought) is still one of the most important stress factors affecting not only yields, but also production quality. Breeders are focusing on breeding cultivars and crop lines that are more resistant to water shortages. In addition to breeding, for example, for the size of the roots and changes in the color of the leaves, focus on changing the morphotype i.e. long chaff, multirowed ear. It is predicted that wheat genotypes with a morphotype change should be more drought tolerant. Therefore, our research focused on the study of changes in the physiological parameters of wheat (cv. ´Bohemia´) with a changed morphotype (genotypes ´284-17´ [long chaff] and genotype ´29-17´ [multirowed ear]) in relation to exposure to drought. Pigment content, photosynthesis and transpiration rate, water potential were measured in plants irrigated and affected by water deficit. Water deficit was shown to have a statistically significant effect on transpiration rate, photosynthetic rate, water potential and total chlorophyll content. Furthermore, the influence of the genotype on the observed parameters and on the effect of water deficit was demonstrated. Due to the fact that cv. ´Bohemia´, increases during such periods of transpiration, so for this reason it is not suitable for dry areas. Genotype ́29-17 ́ appears promising with respect to drought resistance.

Climate change affects water resources through the decrease of rainfall and the increase in temperatures and evapotranspiration. An indirect impact of climate change is also the increase of water uses by human activities. In this review, 320 papers were retrieved, of which 134 spanning five continents impacts and solutions to be used to better understand the effects of climate change on water resources, ecosystems, human health, security and socio-economic aspects were selected. Here, suggestions and proposals by scientists from around the world towards solutions, tips and ideas to deal with climate change and the best solutions for future water management were presented. The main solutions highlighted concern integrated water resources management, political direction, policies, increase in knowledge and new technologies. Furthermore, most of the papers analyzed underline that water resources management needs to incorporate protection and restoration of ecosystems and their services. Nature-based solutions need to be the starting point of new scientific and innovative ways to deal with climate change and towards future climate adaptation. In this complex evolution of the water resource, where is the management of the water resource in Italy going?

Achieving universal access to water and sanitation services in developing countries requires a coherent legal, political, and institutional environment, along with a clear financial strategy. Regionalizing utilities may be crucial for addressing disparities, economic inequalities, and governance challenges. Regionalization offers economies of scale, resource efficiency, knowledge sharing, and collaboration. The cornerstone will be ensuring the financial-economic viability of regional utilities, considering their social impacts in terms of affordability. The State of Santa Catarina case study is assessed. In the case of Santa Catarina, only four regional utilities currently generate sufficient revenue, without factoring in necessary investments, indicating the need to review design parameters to improve operational efficiency and increase revenues. Additional financial support may be required to ensure universal access. Tariff adjustments must strike a balance between cost-effectiveness and affordability for families.

Providing safe drinking water to people in developing countries is an urgent world-wide water problem and a main issue in the UN Sustainability Goals. One of the most efficient and cheapest methods to attain these goals is the use of slow sand filters. Slow sand filters can efficiently provide safe drinking water to people living in small rural communities not served by central water supply systems. The purpose of this review article is to critically summarize and synthesize features and advantages of slow sand filtration methods to improve the quality of drinking water with special focus on less-developed countries. Even though slow sand filtration is an old technique, its efficiency and cost-effectiveness make it important to continue to develop the method in parallel to other chemical and biological methods. Thus, there are needs to continue to develop methods for slow sand filtration combined with simple disinfection techniques for treatment of microbiological pollutants such as bacteria, microbes, viruses, and parasites. These techniques can be applied before or after the sand filter application. Studies are also needed to investigate other types of porous material in areas where suitable sand and gravel are not readily available. Methods are needed to reduce the contents of emerging environmental pollutants such as surfactants and microplastics. Also, further studies are needed to determine design criteria (particle size distribution, depth of media, residence time, temperature, etc.) for different types of pollutants, existing and emerging. Finally, further research is needed to advise on life cycle time, operation (e.g., batch or continuous flow), and maintenance procedures (cleaning of media, back-flushing, etc.) for used porous media in slow the sand filtration.

Different inlet structures have a significant impact on the internal flow characteristics of a solid-magnesium powder water ramjet engine. Based on the magnesium-water reaction model, a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) method is applied to establish a numerical simulation method for the internal flow field of the engine, and the internal flow characteristics of the engine under different inlet structure conditions are studied. The simulation results show that high-temperature gas can effectively promote the ignition of magnesium powder at the top of the combustion chamber, while accelerating the evaporation of the first inlet water and increasing the combustion rate of magnesium powder. The secondary inlet has the most significant effect on the temperature inside the combustion chamber. When the secondary inlet flow rate increases towards the top of the combustion chamber, it increases the amount of heat absorbed by the evaporating water at the top of the chamber, thereby reducing the temperature at the top of the combustion chamber. However, when the flow rate is low, it results in insufficient oxidizer at the top of the combustion chamber, which is unfavorable for the combustion of magnesium powder.

Lagoons are becoming sporadically utilised albeit they are equipped with high potential for the outsourcing of environmental and industrial benefits. It leads to the endangered pollution of lagoon water aquatic system. The prime reason is the lack of knowledge among stakeholders and researchers regarding the influential parameters in establishing the lagoon water quality. The optimal quality for lagoon water is critical for the longevity of aquatic ecosystem. This study focuses on using bibliographic references to find the most influential factors determining the water quality in lagoons for deriving a comprehensive long-term water quality monitoring plan to ensure the sustainability of the lagoon water ecosystem. The lagoon water quality was classified in this study into biological, physical, and chemical parameters and studied for their importance upon enhancing the water quality. Experiments were conducted on selected parameters using the water samples from the selected Sri Lankan lagoons with available facilities to observe the water quality. The overall findings on physiochemical and biological characteristics using the experiments temperature, turbidity, pH, salinity, DO, BOD, COD, phosphates, nitrates, ammonia content and faecal coliforms in water specimens suggest that the selected Sri Lankan lagoons are heavily polluted due to their distinctive variations from the allowable threshold limits specified in the literature sources. To increase such increased risks associated with lagoon water systems, a long-term monitoring strategy is recommended to be incorporated at lagoon waters in order to assure their sustainability.

Senegal central regions face rainfall deficit combined with scarcity of surface water and poor quality. Populations use groundwater for drinking and irrigation. A Groundwater assessment studiebased on 42 samples aims to determine their quality. Several parameters (TDS, TH, WQI, SAR, RSC, %N, PI, KR and MR) and ion chemistry determined . Samples exhibit an alcaline pH (7.6) and hydrochemical facies mainly Ca-Na-Mg-HCO3. The ionic dominance is Na+ ˃ Ca2+ ˃ Mg2+ ˃ K+ and HCO3- ˃ Cl- ˃ SO42- ˃ NO3- ˃ F-. From TDS and WQI index most of the groundwaters are suitable for drinking. Irrigation quality (based on SAR, %N, RSC, KR, MR) varie from excellent to good water type. Plotting chemical data (USSL salinity & Wilcox diagrams) reveals that the majority of the groundwater samples belong to the fields excellent to good and from good to permissible . Natural processes (rock weathering, mineral dissolution, evaporation and ion exchange) control groundwater quality. As the region faced a persistent rainfall deficit combine with fragile groundwater quality should alert the stakeholders. A sustainable development of the region can be faced if strong measures are planned to follow water quality evolution and quantity available for human purposes

So that the levels of water stress are not harmful to the development of the crop and affect its productivity, its detection and monitoring are necessary, and it can occur in different ways. One of them is through the Crop Water Stress Index (CWSI). This index quantifies water stress through the normalization of leaf temperature between the maximum and minimum plant temperatures as a function of evaporation conditions. The responses of a low-cost infrared (IR) sensor were crossed with image processing through segmentation by the Excess Green model to develop a water stress detection system using CWSI. A soil/plant temperature map was generated through a point-to-point scan of the IR sensor. And when it overlaid with a segmented image of the experimental area, only points identified as plants had their temperature values maintained. The Non-Water-Stressed Baseline (NWSB) equation was parameterized for the same conditions of the experiment and external environmental. The experimental area was divided into three different treatments, maintained under stable water conditions throughout the experiment and the system was able to identify stably different stress values between treatments. Although the relationship between crop and environment affected the results, this work showed that using an irrigation system based on CWSI is possible.

Surface water availability is a fundamental environmental variable to implement effective climate adaptation and mitigation plans, as expressed by scientific, financial and political stakeholders. Recently published requirements urge the need for homogenised access to long historical records at a global scale, together with the standardised characterisation of the accuracy of observations. While satellite altimeters offer world coverage measurements, existing initiatives and online platforms provide derived water level data. However, these are sparse, particularly in complex topographies. This study introduces a new methodology in two steps 1) teroVIR, a virtual station extractor for a more comprehensive global and automatic monitoring of water bodies, and 2) teroWAT, a multi-mission, interoperable water level processor, for handling all terrain types. L2 and L1 altimetry products are used, with state-of-the-art retracker algorithms in the methodology. The work presents a benchmark between teroVIR and current platforms in West Africa, Kazakhastan and the Arctic: teroVIR shows an unprecedented increase from 55% to 99% in spatial coverage.A large-scale validation of teroWAT results in an average of unbiased root mean square error ubRMSE of 0.638 m on average for 36 locations in West Africa. Traditional metrics (ubRMSE, median, absolute deviation, Pearson coefficient) disclose significantly better values for teroWAT when compared with existing platforms, of the order of 8 cm and 5% improved respectively in error and correlation. teroWAT shows unprecedented excellent results in the Arctic, using a L1 products based algorithm instead of L2 one, reducing the error of almost 4 m on average. To further compare teroWAT with existing methods, a new scoring option, teroSCO, is presented, measuring the quality of the validation of time series transversally and objectively across different strategies. Finally, teroVIR and teroWAT are implemented as platform-agnostic modules and used by flood forecasting and river discharge methods as relevant examples. A review of various applications for miscellaneous end-users is given, tackling the educational challenge raised by the community.

Citizen science has the potential to support the delivery of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) through its integration into national monitoring schemes. In this study, we explore the opportunities and biases of citizen science (CS) data when used either as a primary or secondary source for SDG 6.3.2 reporting. We use data from waterbodies that have both CS and regulatory monitoring in England and Zambia to explore their biases and complementarity. A comparative analysis of regulatory and CS data provided key information on appropriate sampling frequency, site selection and measurement parameters, necessary for more robust SDG reporting. The results show elevated agreement for pass/fail ratios and indicator scores for English waterbodies (80%) and demonstrate CS data can improve granularity and spatial coverage for SDG indicator scoring, even when extensive statutory monitoring programmes are present. In Zambia, management authorities are actively using citizen science projects to increase spatial and temporal coverage for SDG reporting. Our results indicate that design considerations for SDG focused citizen science can address local needs as well as provide a more representative indicator of the state of a nation’s freshwater ecosystems for international reporting requirements.

The paper provides information on significant contamination of real laboratory water with hydrophilic microimpurities. This fact suggests that researchers are practically dealing with microdispersed systems. However, this fact is usually neglected in the discussions of the causes of the anomalous properties of water. We will show that, when exposed to various factors of physical nature, water demonstrates reactions of the same type, namely, increased pH and electrical conductivity, reduced redox potential and viscosity, and enhanced bioavailability. Each exposure is accompanied by the destruction of aggregates of the dispersed phase and its transition to a fine-dispersed state. The relationship between this phenomenon and the change in the physicochemical properties of water is discussed.

An experimental series of shearing tests with water infiltration were performed on compacted unsaturated soil to simulate the behavior of shallow slope failures. Soil samples were compacted at moisture contents from dry to wet of optimum moisture content with the degree of saturation varying from 24.0% to 59.5% while maintaining the degree of compaction at 80%. Two series of shearing with infiltration tests were performed in this study. In Series-I, just before the start of shearing, matric suction was decreased by increasing pore water pressure to start water infiltration i.e. shearing is carried simultaneously with water infiltration. In Series-II, the soil was first sheared with drained pore air and undrained pore water to pre-defined value of deviatoric stress, after which matric suction was decreased by increasing pore water pressure to start water infiltration and shearing is performed by keeping deviatoric stress constant on the specimen. The test results showed that the decrease in matric suction has an effect on the volume of infiltrated water and degree of saturation. The soil slopes compacted on the dry side of optimum moisture content showed better performance than other soils, they require more decrease in matric suction to start water infiltration and showed higher deviatoric stress. In addition to this, water infiltration alone can cause the failure of shallow slopes without having to have any further loading.

Recently, torrential rain and drought have occurred in close temporal proximity and for similar durations due to changes in the spatiotemporal patterns of rainfall owing to climate change. In particular, when a drought occurs, it tends to be prolonged, making it necessary to improve the operation of multi-purpose dams that not only control flooding but also serve as water supplies. In this study, standard water volume lines and action plans by response stage were improved so that water could be stored in advance of a drought instead of reservoir operation criteria set based on data from the past. The minimum water demand by use (domestic water, industrial water, and agricultural water) was also calculated. The improved reservoir operation criteria were applied to multi-purpose dams in the Nakdong River Basin, and their effects were analyzed by calculating additionally secured water volumes. In the future, in case of lowered water volumes in multi-purpose dams owing to a drought, the application of these improved reservoir operation criteria is expected to contribute to water supply stability by delaying entry into the drought stage, and minimizing the damages caused by limited water supplies.

Rice production is important for global food security but given its large water footprint, efficient irrigation management strategies need to be developed. Expansion of rice growing area is larger than any other crop in Africa due to increasing demand for rice. Three rice irrigation management alternatives with the system of rice intensification (SRI) were field-evaluated against the conventional continuously flooded system (CF) in Tanzania. Production systems included: (1) CF (50 mm ponding depth for the entire season); (2) SRI (40 mm ponding for 3 days and no irrigation for next 5 days); (3) 80% SRI (80% of the SRI ponding); and (4) 50% SRI (50% of the SRI ponding). Experimental evaluation of the four systems was conducted for both wet and dry seasons. For the dry season, the SRI and 80% SRI produced higher yields of 9.68 tons/ha and 11.45 tons/ha and saved 26% and 35% of water, respectively compared to the CF (8.69 tons/ha). The yield advantage of the 80% SRI and SRI over the CF was less during the wet season with 6.01 tons/ha and 5.99 tons/ha of production, and water savings of 30% and 14%, respectively compared to the CF (5.64 tons/ha). The 50% SRI had lowest yield of all for both seasons, 7.48 tons/ha and 4.99 tons/ha for the dry and wet seasons, respectively. Statistically, the 80% SRI treatment outperformed all other treatments over the two seasons with an additional yield of 1.57 tons/ha and 33% (345 mm) water savings compared to the CF. Economic productivity of water (US$/ha-cm) over two seasons was highest for the 80% SRI ($20.27/ha-cm), while it was lowest for the CF ($12.89/ha-cm). Water saved by converting from the CF to the 80% SRI (1.98 million ha-cm) can support a 50% expansion in the current rice irrigated area in Tanzania. Even without irrigation expansion, the 80% SRI can increase rice production by 1.5 million tons annually while enhancing water availability for industrial and environmental uses (e.g., ecological preserves) and help achieve food security in Tanzania and the greater sub-Saharan Africa.

Nowadays asymmetric thin film composite (TFC) polymeric hollow fiber (HF) membranes are extensively used in industrial gas/vapor separations, water treatment etc. There are numerous advantages to use hollow fibers such as: low energy requirements, simplicity of operation, and high specificity. In the present article we discuss the progress made during the past decade in the preparation of the HF substrate and preparation/modification of the thin selective layer. Their applications in water treatment, dehydration of alcohols via pervaporation and gas/vapor separation are also demonstrated.

Water reuse is critical to national development, sustenance, and survival in this era of climate, demographic, and social changes. There is no national systemic approach to address the challenge systematically. The paper presents a framework and a method to develop a national research strategy for water reuse. It presents an ontology of water reuse strategy that encapsulates the combinatorial complexity of the problem clearly, concisely, and comprehensively. Subsequently, it discusses the method to use the framework to develop a national strategy, adapt it through feedback and learning, and ultimately effect a revolutionary change in the strategy for water reuse.

In the northern Patagonian region of Argentina, there exist some of the largest bentonite deposits. Four bentonite samples (B1, B2, B3, and B4) from two deposits were thoroughly characterized and evaluated as potential adsorbents of anthocyanins extracted from red cabbage. Anthocyanins (ACy) are natural colourants obtained from fruits and plants and have shown excellent antioxidant properties that have promising applications in health. The adsorption of ACy onto bentonites enhances their stability relative to that observed in aqueous solutions. Material characterization showed that three of the samples are sodium bentonites (Na-bentonites: B2, B3, and B4), while the fourth exhibits a large quantity of magnesium and calcium in its interlayer, classifying it as a Mg-Ca-Na-bentonite (B1). Na-bentonites demonstrated higher ACy adsorption capacities, occurring through cation exchange while Mg-Ca-Na-bentonite adsorption occurs by another kind of interaction and a cooperative adsorption mechanism, resulting in the lowest ACy adsorption. The highest adsorption capacity was for B3, characterized by the highest smectite content, cation exchange capacity, and proportion of monovalent cations in its interlayer. Under the conditions studied, sodium smectites proved to be capable of retaining red cabbage ACy, there by introducing a novel avenue for potential applications of regional materials with potential implications for health-related uses.

A lignin modified salt resistance branched high-performance water reducer was prepared via free radical polymerization. The water reducing agent was identified through Fourier transform infrared analysis, thermal gravimetric analysis, and scanning electron microscopy. The experiment conducted on cement paste demonstrates that the water-reducing efficiency can reach a maximum of 44%. Additionally, the significant spatial steric hindrance of the application enhances the dispersal capability of the water-reducing agent, resulting in effective water reduction and reduced viscosity. In addition, its compressive strength is the highest after 3-day curing and 3, 7, 28-day standard curing, and it has the best overall performance both in water and saline water prepared systems.The application in oil cement slurry shows that it exhibits good dispersibility in fresh water, saline water, and substitute ocean water. In the Halfaya and Missan Oilfields of Iraq, BHPWR was used in slurry with a density of 2.28g cm-3 for casing the 244.5 mm salt paste layer of five wells. Cementing results exceeded expectations with over 85% excellent and 100% qualified.

Despite the overall extension of the Amazon basin (approximately 6,000,000),which encompasses such a complex ecosystem and territories belonging to seven different nations, it is worth mentioning that environmental assessment related to changes in land use and land cover (LULC) in this region are often conducted respecting geopolitical boundaries associated with each country or taking into account the so-called Amazon biome. With the purpose of prospecting the intricate and hidden hydrological patterns, we undertake an in-depth evaluation of the water balance along the 2001-2021 time span across the whole basin, whose behavior depends on the features deriving from the metamorphoses in land use and land cover. To accomplish that task, the influence of the components of the water balance, namely rainfall and evapotranspiration, jointly with the terrestrial topographic mapping, are examined to investigate the interactions among the physical mechanisms that make up the hydrological cycle and the corresponding physical hydrological processes triggered by deforestation and reforestation in the region. More specifically, the modeling approach was rigorously designed to also consider, separately or not Negro, Solimões, Madeira, Tapajós and Xingu hydrographic sub-basins, which are the most important ones of the Amazon basin. The results highlight that, in the southern region of the Amazon, specifically within the Madeira river sub-basin, the lowest forest coverage is observed (56.0%), whereas in the northern Negro river sub-basin, the most notable forest coverage is observed (85.0%).The most preserved forest areas, such as the Negro and Solimões river sub-basins, with percentages of 81.9% and 74.2%, respectively, have higher annual rates of precipitation and evapotranspiration over time. On the other hand, regions that suffered the most intense deforestation along the time period studied, such as the Madeira, Tapajós and Xingu sub-basins, have lower annual rates of precipitation and evapotranspiration, with a preservation percentage of 54.6%, 62.6% and 70, 7%, respectively. As the pace of deforestation slowed between 2003 and 2013, annual precipitation rates increased by 12.0%, while evapotranspiration decreased by 2.0%. The hydrological findings of this paper highlight th predominant role of the forest in the context of the global water balance of the Amazon basin and the potential to also produce distinct impacts within different parts of the basin in terms of having more or less rainfall and evaporation. In addition, those variabilities in the hydrological operational components and mechanisms due to changes in land cover and land use also reveals the potential impacts that could be expected in the surrounding areas, closer or farther, notably beyond the limits of the Amazon basin.

CoFe2O4 is a promissing catalytic material for many chemical reactions. We have used ab initio molecular dynamic simulations to study the structure and reactivity of the A- and B-terminations of the low index CoFe2O4 (001) surfaces to water adsorption at room temperature. Upon adsorption, water partly dissociates on both termination with a higher dissociation degree on the A- termination (30% versus 19%). The 2-fold coordinated Fe3+(tet) in the tetrahedral voids and the 5-fold coordinated Fe3+(oct) in the octahedral voids are the main active sites for water dissociation on the A- and B-termination, respectively. Molecular water, hydroxydes and surface OH resulting from proton transfer to surface oxygens are present on the surfaces. Both water free sur- face terminations undergo reconstruction. The outermost Fe3+(tet) on the A-termination and B-termination move towards the nearby unoccupied octahedral voids. In the presence of a thin film of 32 water molecules, the reconstructions are partially and completely lifted on the A- and B-termination, respectively.

While maintenance dredging of port access channels is often required to maintain navigability, it can result in increased turbidity, sediment plumes, and associated reductions in water quality. Unoccupied aircraft systems (UAS, or drones) are increasingly applied to study water quality due to their high spatial and temporal resolutions. In this study, we investigated the use of drone imagery to monitor turbidity in the Morehead City Harbor, North Carolina, USA, during channel maintenance by hopper dredge. Drone flights were conducted concurrently with in-situ sampling during active dredging and post-dredging. Multispectral drone images were radiometrically calibrated, converted to reflectance and then turbidity using two separate processing methods and a single-band (red; 620nm-700nm) generic turbidity retrieval algorithm, and then compared to in-situ measurements. The method of using average reflectance to retrieve a single turbidity measurement per drone image produced agreeable results when compared to the in-situ measurements (R² = 0.84). This method was then used to generate turbidity maps and extract surface plumes. While this could be considered a limited validation, the results indicate that realistic values can be obtained from drone imagery for low and high turbidity concentrations (1-72 FNU), making drones a viable option for monitoring surface turbidity associated with dredging.

Water literacy is the ability to feel familiar with and get actively involved in water to face issues about it. This study aims to analyze the water literacy of students who come from areas that have indigenous knowledge related to water conservation and do not have indigenous knowledge but have come from the same province with a similar abundance of water. The samples of this study were 439 people consisting of 184 boys and 255 girls aged 11-18 years from junior and senior high school students in Palembang Municipality and three sub-districts in Muara Enim Regency, namely Semende Darat Laut, Semende Darat Tengah, and Darat Ulu and both are indonesian. There were 39 questions for measuring water literacy in the form of a Likert scale (1-5) to measure practical and living literacy with Cronbach alpha values of 0.692 and 0.773, respectively, and were analyzed with SPSS version 21 through the Mann-Whitney (u) and Cronbach alpha statistical tests. The total alpha was 0.838. Social literacy was measured in the open-ended question instrument and analyzed descriptively. The results showed that practical water literacy in Palembang was significantly different from Semende's but not with living water literacy. Students' social water literacy in the Semende had two different answer patterns, while, in Palembang, it was more diverse with six different response patterns. Meanwhile, when asked to describe a diagram of the flow of water in nature in Semende, no students think that it is the neglect of customs that results in reduced water in Semende as understood by some students in Palembang who are not involved with these customs.

A series of novel superabsorbent composites of poly(acrylic acid)/semicoke were prepared by polymerization of acrylic acid using ammonium persulphate as initiator, N,N’-methylenebisacrylamide as crosslinker and semicoke which was the by-product of coal carbonizing as the inorganic components. FTIR and SEM analysis indicated that the superabsorbent composites had been successfully polymerized and the semicoke participated into the construction of 3D polymeric network. Meanwhile, the effects of initiator, crosslinker, semicoke, neutralization degree as well as the pH value were investigated, and the results showed that superabsorbent composites containing 10% of semicoke possessed the maximum water absorbency of 584 g/g in distilled water and 75 g/g in 0.9 % NaCl solution. The superabsorbent composites kept the high water absorbency within a wide pH range of 4-11, and still exhibited better re-swelling capability even after seven times. The superabsorbent composite with the excellent performance is a potential water-retaining agent used in the agriculture.

Background: Ongoing Primary and Secondary Education Development Program (PEDP & SEDP) has led to increase in enrollment of children in schools. This created a high demand for facilities such as classroom, chairs, laboratories, latrines and water supply. Water and latrines did not receive equal attention like others. National strategic plan for School Water Sanitation and Hygiene (SWASH) 2012-2017 was to address such challenges with objectives to improve SWASH by 2017. Hence this study aimed to evaluate the implementation of SWASH program in Ukerewe. Methodology: A cross sectional survey was done among 42 schools in the district with 40 schools being government owned. Systematic random sampling was used and data were collected using a structured interview which was pre-tested and amended prior to conducting fieldwork. UNICEF, WASH in Schools Monitoring Package observational check-list was used to assess sanitation facilities. Results: Findings from this study showed the latrine-hole to student ratio was 1:71 with only 31.3% of the latrines being in good clean condition and about half (59.5%) of the schools have no facilities for washing hands. For the schools with hand washing facilities only 21.4% have an effective hand washing practice (presence of soap and water). The most common source of water used was lake water (35.7%) with (42.9%) having water storage facilities. Conclusion: The study shows that most of the objectives of national strategic plan are yet to be implemented at Ukerewe. There is a need for minor repairs to complete new construction of SWASH facilities in Ukerewe.

Moisture and thermal are the key factors for influencing methane desorption during CBM exploitation. Using high pressure water injection technology into coalbed, new fractures and pathways are formed to methane transport. It is existed a phenomenon of water inhibiting gas flow. This study is focused on various water pressures impacted on gas adsorbed coal samples, then the desorption capacity could be revealed under different conditions. And the results are shown that methane desorption capacity was decreased with water pressure increased at room temperature and the downtrend would be steady until water pressure was large enough. Heating could promote gas desorption capacity effectively, with the increasing of water injection pressures, the promotion of thermal on desorption became more obvious. These results are expected to provide a clearer understanding of theoretical efficiency of heat water or steam injection into coalbed, they can provide some theoretical and experimental guidance on CBM production and methane control.

An empirical model is presented for estimating discharge on the Ubombo Sugar Limited (USL) main gravity canal to enhance bulk water management and water use efficiency. It uses stage readings obtained from measuring flumes A, B, C, and UPS to simulate discharge. The rationale for the development of the mathematical flow simulation model is the significance of the UPS flume as it measures readings that influence the daily operations of the farm, and the experiences with the ultrasonic flow meter installed in the flume. The model also provides a first for the simulation of accurate flow rates for flumes A, B, and C. A spreadsheet program that enables express prediction of canal flow rates was developed to influence timely implementation of these water management decisions. Calibrations demonstrated that the model is capable of predicting discharge at high accuracy (p>95%), and can be reliably used as a decision support tool for bulk water management. It can also be expanded to include other water measuring structures along Canal 1 and Canal 2, as well as the development of a stand-alone water management application for desktop and mobile computers.