Urbanization is a global phenomenon and as the economies are shifting from rural based subsistence to services based, the net flow of migration is inevitable. Unfortunately, In India, migration is very poorly understood. India is next to China in production of bricks, accounting for nearly 13% of global annual bricks’ production. The condition of brick-kiln workers is pitiable, especially due to poor care available. They are exposed to health hazards such as various communicable diseases, sexually transmitted diseases and occupational health hazards. The diseases such as respiratory problems, allergies, gastrointestinal ailments and malnutrition are frequent in these populations. This paper reflects upon various policies that exist for the welfare of unorganised sector but do these workers qualify for these benefits? This paper provides empirical basis for paradigm shift for policy formulation to provide safety nets for migrant population and have better urban planning for future.

The brick manufacturing sector in Bangladesh is experiencing rapid growth, leading to notable environmental and health concerns. The primary objective of this research is to examine the Savar Upazila, a region of significant economic significance owing to its favorable brick manufacturing conditions and proximity to Dhaka city. Brick kilns, among other sources, constitute significant contributors to air pollution. The study utilized primary and secondary data to examine brick kiln emissions' effects on the surrounding area's environment and public health. The collection of primary data was conducted in multiple zones within Savar Upazila, which is home to a significant number of brick kilns. The utilization of secondary data provided valuable insights regarding the toxic pollutants discharged by these kilns and the corresponding health risks they pose. The participants provided accounts of various health ailments, such as dermatological conditions, optical difficulty, and respiratory complications, further aggravated by brick kilns' incidents. The prevalence of crop losses, soil degradation, and reduced agricultural yields was confirmed by 74% of the respondents. The trees and crops in the surrounding area experienced adverse effects due to the deposition of dust particles. During periods of inactivity, the concentrations of sulfur oxide (SOx) were between 6 and 9 times lower compared to periods of operation. Similarly, nitrogen oxide (NOx) levels were observed to be 4 to 6 times lower during non-operational phases. The degradation of water quality in adjacent bodies has been attributed to the deposition of dust and ash originating from brickfields, resulting in substantial repercussions on aquaculture. A significant proportion of participants indicated experiencing diverse health issues, notwithstanding the employment prospects generated by brick kilns, thereby underscoring the adverse consequences on both the environment and the local economy.

The purpose of the investigation was to determine the relationship between rotary kiln liner loss and steel structure ovality. As measurement apparatus, a terrestrial laser scanner was used. The interior and exterior of the rotary kiln were measured. The primary focus object was inner-lining loss and the geometric characteristics of cylindrical shells. The research uncovered significant disparities in inner lining loss between sections. A correlation was found between ovality and elimination of inner lining. Due to the hypothesis of constant inner linig loss from the middle of the rotary kiln, the investigation found that the loss of brick lining was less than the value reported from the boreholes. The study offers significant information on maintenance and repair strategies for rotary kilns, which have the potential to increase their efficiency and useful life.

To achieve sustainable development during urbanization, construction waste is recycled for use as an aggregate in recycled concrete (RC). To determine the influence of the brick content in coarse recycled aggregates on the damage sustained by the resultant RC, the RC was first divided into seven phases: natural crushed stone, old gravel inside waste concrete, bricks, new mortar, old mortar on waste concrete surfaces, and new and old interface transition zones. The Monte Carlo method was then applied to establish a two-dimensional random aggregate model of the RC made with coarse brick aggregates. The ABAQUS software package was used to simulate a uniaxial compression test, the results of which were combined with those of a macro-test to determine the internal damage change rule of brick-containing RC. The stress–strain curves obtained from the simulation coincided well with that of the macroscopic tests. As the brick content increased, the damage zone inside the specimen and the number of microcracks increased. The stress concentration area decreased, as indicated by a lower compressive strength in the macro-test. The results indicate that higher brick contents in RC yield more initial damage inside the concrete and a lower compressive strength.

This study aimed to investigate the impact of incorporating Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF) into a production brick mixture in order to mitigate difficulties encountered in the production environment. Three distinct tests were conducted to assess the preparation process. The first test served as a reference, utilizing 100% clay material without RDF. The second test involved the inclusion of 10% RDF, obtained from a waste factory, with a grain size less than 20mm. In the third test, the RDF was mixed with silica sand after undergoing hammer milling with a 2mm sieve, followed by a 10% incorporation into the mixture. The primary objective was to comprehend the behavior of these mixtures in two critical stages: extrusion and drying. Extrusion performance was evaluated by examining the shaping process from the mold, vacuum conditions within the extruder, and the cutting of wet sample bricks. Furthermore, the drying procedure was assessed in terms of shrinkage, drying sensitivity, and appearance. Comparisons were made among the three test scenarios to identify the influence of RDF on these key parameters. Preliminary results indicate that the inclusion of RDF impacted the extrusion process. The addition of RDF resulted in variations in the flow characteristics of the mixture, affecting the shape formation from the mold and the vacuum conditions within the extruder. Additionally, the cutting of wet sample bricks exhibited some differences compared to the reference test. Concerning the drying phase, the presence of RDF influenced shrinkage behavior and drying sensitivity. The mixture with RDF showed different shrinkage patterns compared to the reference, and its drying sensitivity was altered. Moreover, the appearance of the bricks after drying exhibited notable variations due to the incorporation of RDF. In conclusion, incorporating RDF in the brick mixture introduces changes in both the extrusion and drying stages. The alteration in flow characteristics and vacuum conditions during extrusion, as well as the variations in shrinkage, drying sensitivity, and appearance during drying, suggest that further investigation is necessary to optimize the incorporation of RDF for improved brick production. These findings contribute to the understanding of the challenges and opportunities associated with the utilization of RDF in brick manufacturing processes.

In view of increasing concerns over non-renewable resource depletion and waste management, this study aimed to apply the Taguchi optimization technique to determine the process conditions for producing bricks by incorporating thin film transition liquid crystal displays (TFT-LCD) waste glass powder with reservoir sediments. An orthogonal array L₁₆(4⁵) was adopted, which consisted of five controllable four-level factors (i.e., cullet content, drying method, preheat time, sintering temperature, and error). Moreover, the analysis of variance method was used to explore the effects of the experimental factors on the density, water absorption, shrinkage ratio, loss of ignition, porosity, and compressive strength of the fired bricks. The microstructures of the fired specimens were investigated by scanning electron microscopy. Then, the large-scale production techniques for fired bricks containing recycled TFT-LCD glass cullet and reservoir sediments was developed in a commercially available tunnel kiln. The test results showed that the structure of fired specimen was loose at a sintering temperature ranged from 900–950 °C. However, the fired specimen showed a significant densification at the sintering temperature of 1050 °C. In addition, Taguchi method is a feasible approach for optimizing process condition of brick using recycled TFT-LCD glass cullet and reservoir sediments and it significantly reduces the number of tests. On the other hand, the characteristics of fired bricks developed in the tunnel kiln were in compliance with Chinese National Standards class Ι building bricks criteria.

The prospects of processing blast furnace and steelmaking sludge using Waelz process in a laboratory rotary kiln is shown. The influence of varying thermal treatment modes, furnace atmosphere and type of reducing agents on the level of zinc reduction from sludges was analyzed. In general, the blast furnace sludge contains a high portion of iron (approx.48 wt. %) and can be reused as a charge after satisfactory zinc reduction. It was found that N- atmosphere and high content of the graphite or coke oven reducing agent in combination with high temperature can reduce the content of Zn in the sludge to 0.08 wt. % at 1200 °C for mixture of steelmaking and blast furnace sludge. A significant reduction in the Zn content to 0.66 wt. % occurs at 1100 °C. The content and type of reducing agent play an important role; graphite has shown a better reducing ability compared to coke oven dust. When nitrogen is used, zinc is reduced even without an additional reducing agent, since the carbon contained in the sludge is made use of for the reduction. In an air atmosphere, without the use of a reducing agent, there was no reduction in the Zn content.

E-commerce has gained increased popularity over the last decade. To date, there is an open debate as to whether e-commerce or brick-and-mortar shopping is environmentally less sustainable, especially due to the growing mobility resources needed for e-commerce distribution. The analysis at hand compares the CO2-equivalent emissions of e-commerce and brick-and-mortar shopping of pharmaceutical products considering spatial aspects and the typical transport modal mix of consumers when doing online and offline shopping. The object of analysis is a retailer of pharmaceutical products, more precisely medicines, which offers, both, brick-and-mortar shop and online shopping possibilities. The results show that spatial aspects concerning the residential location of consumers, the vehicles used for shopping trips, the shopping basked size, and trip-chaining effects have a crucial impact on the mobility demand and CO2-equivalent emissions of the two commerce forms. In general, for rural and sub-urban areas, e-commerce results in lower CO2-equivalent emissions, while in urban areas, brick-and-mortar shopping is the favourable solution, if the consumers walk or cycle to the next pharmacy.

The energy-intensive sector of the cement industry needs to find technologically advanced methods to produce cement with as little energy as possible, without polluting the environment and without sacrificing the quality (fineness) of the cement. In addition, the stress on the machines changes the behavior of the data. By combining the k-means method, two (2) feature selection methods, nine (9) machine learning methods, and the differential evolution (DE) method, a dynamic system is created where the user determines the key performance indicators (KPIs) each time. The user has the potential to control the distribution of the data, the input of machine learning models, and the ability to switch the system to the suggested values without damage. The selection of the best-performing models is based on the normalized root mean squared error (NRMSE). The DE method optimizes the dynamic objective function. The optimal values of the manipulated variables are evaluated compared to the value of the objective function from the actual values of the variables. In all experiments, the recommendations are acceptable. The final results show an improvement in the operation of both the cement mill and kiln compared to the current operating condition.

The purpose of this study is to investigate the different types of bricks as a construction material. In this study, monitoring different technical specification or characteristics of the bricks. At the end of study, Brick Quality Index (BQI) evaluated. According to BQI, bricks were classified poor to excellent quality.

The global focus on geopolymer binder production has increased due to the adoption of waste materials and industrial byproducts. Given the gradual decline of the availability of fly ash and ground granular blast furnace slag (GGBFS) resulting from the decarbonization process in electricity and steel productions, waste clay brick powder (WCBP), could be a viable substitute of these pozzolanic by-products. This research is dedicated to thoroughly investigate the techno-eco-efficiency performance of WCBP when utilized as a geopolymer precursor. The favorable mechanical characteristics exhibited by fly ash-GGBFS-WCBP-based geopolymer binder emphasize the importance of assessing its sustainability alongside its technical viability. The study employed life cycle analysis (LCA), following ISO 14040-44 standards, and using the Simapro software, to evaluate the environmental implications of the use of WCBP-based geopolymer mixtures. Human toxicity emerged as the primary impact. Moreover, the analysis of life cycle costs highlighted key financial factors, with around 65-70% attributed to alkaline activators of the total cost. The production of alkaline activators was identified as a critical point for both environmental impact and economic considerations due to energy consumption. While WCBP-rich samples exhibit a 1.7-0.7% higher environmental impact compared to the control mix (CM), their high mechanical strength and cost-effectiveness make them technologically and economically efficient geopolymer mixes. In conclusion, the portfolio analysis for techno-eco-efficiency affirms that mixes containing 40%, 30%, and 20% WCBP are more efficient than those using 10% and 0% WCBP, respectively.

Nowadays the preservation and restoration of historical building needs to be faced in accordance with a novel sensibility regarding environment to preserve the future generations. In this context, the scientific community is focusing on novel and sustainable materials and techniques allowing durability and mechanical performances and at the same time compatibility with the existing heritage. Alkali activated materials represent a great challenge to produce new materials starting from the existing ones with reducing consumption, emission of greenhouse gases and environmental impact. This study deals with the valorization of waste materials coming from demolition and construction activities in the manufacture of geocomposites suitable for restoration and conservation of historical heritage. In particular, waste from tuff sawing and brick grinding were used as raw materials, then the geopolymeric samples produced were characterized from physical-chemical and mechanical point of view in order to investigate their performance and evaluate their suitability as materials for historical buildings recovery. Brick waste based geocomposites resulted to be more compact than the tuff-based ones as showed by the higher density values and the lower values of open porosity and water absorption and as further confirmed by the trend of the mechanical performance. Moreover, experimental data showed that physical and mechanical properties of both bricks and tuff waste-based geocomposites, even with different waste content, are compatible with existing building materials and to all the traditional repairing products.

During the MoDeCo2000 scientific and research project on mortars used in the territory of the Roman Danube Limes in Serbia, the biggest challenge was the quest for the provenance of used raw materials. The area where the largest city in the province of Moesia Superior developed, with millennial continuity of land use and settlement, was selected as a case study for deeper research. The material and immaterial values of Roman Viminacium have survived in the later life of the landscape, through the preserved building remains and artifacts, secondary use of building materials, but also toponyms, customs, and stories. Recycling of materials is commonly recognised in the modern age as the industrial processing of existing products in order to obtain raw materials and later prepare new products, representing one of the basic elements of sustainability. However, people throughout history have always used what they had at hand and the building remains were reused, but also recycled for new constructions. In this study we follow the presence of the specific material we call natural brick in the historical Viminacium landscape, focusing on Roman construction and specifically its potential use in lime mortars, connecting humanistic and natural sciences.

Deformation behavior of MXene based polymer composites with bioinspired brick and mortar structures is analyzed. MXene/Polymer nanocomposites are modeled at microscale using bioinspired configurations of nacre-mimetic brick-and-mortar assembly structure. MXenes (brick) with polymer matrix (mortar) are modeled using classical analytical methods and numerical methods based on Finite Elements (FE). The analytical methods provide less accurate estimation of elastic properties compared to numerical one. MXene nanocomposite models analyzed with FE method provide estimates of elastic constants in the same order of magnitude as literature reported experimental results with good consistency. Bioinspired design of MXene nanocomposites results in the effective Young’s modulus of the nanocomposite increase by 25.1 % and the strength (maximum stress capacity within elastic limits) increase by 42.3 %. The brick and mortar structure of the nanocomposites leads to interlocking mechanism between MXene fillers in polymer matrix, resulting in effective load transfer, good strength, and damage resistance. This is demonstrated in this paper by numerical analysis of MXene nanocomposites subjected to quasi-static loads.

The annual construction and demolition waste (CDW) generated from EU construction sector was 850 million tons, which represented 31% of the total waste generation and about 28% of CDW was ceramics (bricks and tiles). In this study, the feasibility of using CDW brick powder as the precursor of alkali activated mortar (AAM) and extruded polystyrene (XPS) as the lightweight aggregates to form lightweight brick powder AAM (LW-BP-AAM) for non-structural applications was investigated. The thermal conductivity of LP-BPAAM was 0.112 W/m·K with density of about 1,135 kg/m³ which was lower than the counterparts with similar density in literature. The acid resistance of LW-BP-AAM is comparable to conventional fly ash based AAM and superior than ordinary Portland cement. From the scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, there was no severe damage on the surface of LW-BP-AAM but aluminate was removed from the matrix which was further verified in Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The mass and strength loss of LP-BP-AAM was 1.5% and 33%, respectively. Although the compressive strength of the LP-BP-AAM was low (about 1.8 MPa), it can be improved by optimising the particle size of the XPS aggregates.

In Geo Polymer bricks (GPB), fly ash content which is a waste from power plants is converted into bricks by chemical treatment. GPB can be dried by using appropriate curing methods. Conven-tionally electric oven curing is one of the prominent methods. Using solar dryer instead of elec-trical oven gives added advantage of saving high grade electrical energy. So in this work solar dryer with PCM (Phase Change materials) Paraffin Wax and without PCM is used for curing ap-plication. GPB are gaining added advantage when compared to conventional bricks like cement and sand bricks in terms of strength. GPB has been taken as specimen for comparing the com-pressive, tensile split strength and flexural strength by electrical energy based curing and solar energy based curing. It is experimentally observed that solar energy based curing with PCM and without PCM exhibits higher compressive strength, higher tensile split strength and flexural strength when compared to electrical energy based curing. Solar curing with PCM shows higher compressive strength, higher tensile split strength and flexural strength when compared to Solar curing without PCM. Open solar curing is a traditional technique but nowadays aggressive cli-matic conditions can lead to severe damage of Geo polymers. The novelty of this work is to suggest to study the effect of PCM like paraffin wax in solar drying on curing time, mechanical properties of GPB.

The area of Central and Eastern Europe, and thus Poland, is not exposed to effects of seismic actions. Any possible tremors can be caused by coal or copper mining. Wind, rheological effects, the impact of other objects or a non-uniform substrate are the predominant types of loading included in calculations for stiffening walls. The majority of buildings in Poland, as in most other European countries, are low, medium-high brick buildings. Some traditional materials, like solid brick (>10% of construction materials market) are still used. But autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC) and cement-sand calcium-silicate (Ca-Si) elements with thin joints are prevailing (>70% of the market) on the Polish market. Adding reinforcement only to bed joints in a wall is a satisfactory solution (in addition to confining) for seismic actions occurring in Poland that improves ULS and SLS. This paper presents results from our own tests on testing horizontal shear walls without reinforcement and with different types of reinforcement. This discussion includes 51 walls made of solid brick (CB) reinforced with steel bars and steel trusses, results from tests on 15 walls made of calcium-silicate (Ca-Si) and AAC masonry units reinforced with steel trusses and plastic meshes. Taking into account our own tests and those conducted by other authors, empirical relationships were determined on the basis of more than 90 walls. They are applicable to design and construction phase to determine the likely effect of reinforcement on cracking stress that damage shear deformation and wall stiffness.