Background: Taeniasis and cysticercosis are human infections caused by the pork tapeworm, Taenia solium. This study is a baseline for the Community-based intervention. We determined the prevalence of human cysticercosis and associated risk factors following deworming program conducted throughout the country, Mbulu District being among the districts in Northern Tanzania.Methods: Human cysticercosis was determined by enzyme-linked Immunosorbent assay (Ag- ELISA). Household interviews and observations were conducted to identify risk factors for cysticercosis transmissions among households and communities. Results: Three hundred individuals participated in the study. The age ranged from five to 89 years, with a median of 19 years. The prevalence of human cysticercosis was 23(7.67%). The prevalence was high 6(11.76%) among individuals aged 26 to 35 years and ±45 years. There was no statistically significant difference in the prevalence by age group, sex, or occupation. Among the 300 participants, 82(27.3%) had received anthelmintic during the previous year; among these, 5(21.7%) were infected. The likelihood of infection was low among anthelmintic users by 28% [0.72 (0.26-2.01)], but the protection was not significant. The communities differed in risk factors on the availability of clean and safe water supply; 52.7% (46/86) of households visited had no pit latrine. The cysticercosis prevalence showed a significant difference by communities. Conclusion: The prevalence of human cysticercosis was high and associated with higher age groups. The prevalence was low among those who had taken anthelmintic and was associated with lower age groups. The school current school deworming program has a positive effect for school children meanwhile the elderly are at higher risk because the intervention did not target them. It is recommended to scale up anthelmintic intervention to higher age groups.

As a result of an increasing population of aged people in sub-Saharan Africa, dementia is predicted to surge up to 90% by 2030. This review is set to assess the prevalence of dementia, for 65+ aged population in sub-Saharan states and particularly in Tanzania. Subsequently, the review will identify the possible risks factors – age, gender, level of education, cardiovascular problems, diabetes and mild cognitive impairment – and will lay out the challenges of reducing the dementia burden in Tanzania. Additionally, the review explores the current approaches in solving dementia disorders, including a general view of the public understanding of dementia. Also, the review recognises the gaps in government funding to mental health, a barrier to service access and the need for further research on Alzheimer’s and other dementias. Lastly, the review links the sustainable development goals (SDGs) addressed and appreciate the impact of the coronavirus pandemic on the fight against dementia.

In South Sudan, three case-control studies found a positive association between Nodding Syn-drome (NS) and a Mansonella perstans infection. To investigate whether M. perstans could play the primary and sole causal role in the development of NS, we examined blood films of persons with and without epilepsy in rural villages affected by NS in Mahenge, Tanzania, to identify M. perstans infections. Study participants were also examined for onchocercal nodules and skin lesions and tested for the presence of anti-O. volvulus antibodies (Ov16 ELISA). One hundred and thirteen epilepsy cases and 132 controls were enrolled, with a mean age of 28.3 years (interquartile range 22 – 34 years); 125 (51%) were females. Of the persons with epilepsy, 43 (38.1%) met the probable NS criteria. M. perstans infection was absent in all participants, but Ov16 prevalence and oncho-cerciasis-associated skin manifestations were positively associated with epilepsy, including probable NS. Onchocercal nodules in the mothers of cases were also positively associated with epilepsy. In conclusion, in contrast with O. volvulus, M. perstans is likely not endemic in Mahenge and therefore cannot be a co-factor for NS in the area. Hence, this filaria cannot be the primary and sole causal factor in the development of NS.

Presentation of case: A 20 year old men from Simanjiro district in northern Tanzania presented with a 3 year history of splenomegaly, fatigue, cachexia, skin maculae and recent onset of watery diarrhea at Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre (KCMC) in Northern Tanzania. Due to laboratory findings of pancytopenia, diagnostic workup included bone marrow aspiration cytology and biopsy. Although the rapid test (IT LEISH, rK39 RDT) was negative, blood smear showed amastigote forms of Leishmaniasis in macrophages. Repeat bone marrow aspiration and PCR eventually confirmed VL. The patient denied travel to known endemic areas of visceral leishmaniasis (VL). Treatment was initiated with Amphotericin B, but the patient died on the fourth day of treatment from respiratory insufficiency. An autopsy revealed massive organ manifestations of VL. Case discussion: This is the first reported autochthonous case of VL in Tanzania. Clark et al. detected the vector Phlebotomous martini in Northern Tanzania in 2013, in a region boardering the district of our patient. The negative rapid test draws attention to the fact that sensitivity and specificity was found to be low in East African VL patients as displayed earlier by a Kenyan study. Therefore, tissue samples (spleen or bone marrow) remain necessary for diagnosis. The variety of symptoms in this presented case was remarkable, including the occurrence of Post Kala Azar Dermal Leishmaniasis (PKDL) and VL at the same time. This has been described in East African VL cases before as well as the occurrence of chronic diarrhea. An elongated undiagnosed period likely led to a mixed clinical picture that included: hepato-splenomegaly, PKDL, cachexia, and diarrhea.

The tumor microenvironment (TME) plays a critical role in cancer progression and treatment outcomes. Despite advances in cancer research, many therapeutic strategies have failed to provide the desired clinical outcomes. In this integrated review, aimed to explore the role of TME in cancer biology and develop novel therapeutic strategies that target not only cancer cells but also the surrounding microenvironment. Study conducted a comprehensive literature search using PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science databases for articles published between 2016 and 2022. Inclusion of articles that discussed the impact of TME on cancer development and progression, as well as articles that proposed novel therapeutic strategies targeting the TME. The analysis of the literature revealed that the TME plays a crucial role in cancer development and progression by promoting cancer cell survival, angiogenesis, invasion, and metastasis, and by interfering with the efficacy of cancer therapies. The TME is composed of a complex network of non-cancerous cells, extracellular matrix components, and signaling molecules that interact with cancer cells. Several novel therapeutic strategies have been proposed based on the modulation of TME components. One of the most promising approaches is the use of immunotherapy, which aims to enhance the immune system's ability to recognize and attack cancer cells. Immunotherapy drugs such as checkpoint inhibitors, chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells, and immune-stimulatory monoclonal antibodies have been approved for the treatment of different cancer types. These approaches have shown promising results in preclinical studies and clinical trials. The TME plays a critical role in cancer development and progression, and targeting its components represents a promising avenue for cancer therapy. Novel therapeutic strategies such as immunotherapy, extracellular matrix-targeting drugs, and nanoparticle-based therapies have shown promising results in preclinical studies and clinical trials. However, further research is needed to identify the most effective strategies and to overcome the challenges associated with TME targeting.

Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6.2 sets an ambitious target of leaving no one without adequate sanitation by 2030. The key concern is the lack of local human and financial capital to fund the collection of reliable information to monitor progress towards the goal. As a result, national and local records may be telling a different story of the proportion of safely managed sanitation that counts towards achieving the SDGs. This paper unveils such inconsistency in sanitation data generated by urban authorities and proposes a simple approach for collecting reliable and verifiable information on access to safely managed sanitation. The paper is based on a study conducted in Babati Town Council in Tanzania. Using a smartphone-based survey tool, city health officers were trained to map 17,383 housing units in the town. A housing unit may comprise of two or more households. The findings show that 5% practice open defecation, while 82% of the housing units have some forms of sanitation. Despite the extensive coverage, only 31% of the faecal sludge generated is safely contained, while 64% is not. This study demonstrates the possibility of using simple survey tools to collect reliable data for monitoring progress towards safely managed sanitation in the towns of global south.

Spina bifida, a congenital neural tube defect, presents a complex set of challenges, particularly in motor function, for individuals across the lifespan. The condition is characterized by incomplete closure of the spinal column during embryonic development, leading to a spectrum of motor impairments such as gait abnormalities, muscle weakness, and compromised functional mobility. The prevalence of spina bifida remains a global concern, affecting approximately 1 in 1000 live births. This research investigates the potential impact of virtual reality (VR) rehabilitation on motor function in individuals with spina bifida in Tanzania. A randomized controlled trial involving 120 participants is designed, with one group undergoing traditional rehabilitation and another engaging in a six-week VR rehabilitation program. Motor function assessments, including gait analysis, muscle strength measurements, and functional mobility tests, were conducted at baseline, midpoint, and post-intervention. Preliminary analysis suggests that VR rehabilitation may offer unique benefits, leading to improvements in motor function. The study aims to contribute valuable insights into the efficacy of VR-based interventions for enhancing the motor capabilities of individuals with spina bifida, providing a foundation for future rehabilitation strategies in this population.

Early diagnosis of malaria and treatment seeking behavior play key role in controlling and preventing further complication related to malaria disease. Aim of this study was to determine the responses on early malaria diagnosis and treatment seeking behavior among outpatient clients attending at Sekou toure regional referral hospital in Mwanza, Tanzania. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among outpatient client at Sekou-Touré regional referral hospital, convenient simple random sampling used and self-administered questionnaire were used to collect data and data was entered into Microsoft excel and then exported to SPSS version 25.0 for further analysis and presented on the percentages and table. The analysis of strength of relationships between categorical variables was conducted using the Chi-square test. A p-value of ≤ 0.05 was considered to be statistically significant. Results: A total of 192 respondents completed the study with a response rate of 97.6%. The study revealed that Most of the respondents about 90.6% stated they would seek treatment from health facility when symptoms appear. However, only 6.3% seek treatment within 24 hours of onset of illness (p= 0.017). Half of respondents (50.5%) experienced malaria symptoms in the past six months and only 30% seek for treatment at health facility. Preference of health facility, (51%) respondents were going direct to pharmacy to buy medicine for self-treatment. Overall, cost of service, time consumed and distance of health facility especially health center shows significant with such delay. Conclusion: A low proportion of malaria-suspected patients sought treatment within 24 h of fever onset compared to the national target. Distance from the health facility, cost of service and time consumed were found to be predictors of early treatment-seeking behavior for malaria. Strengthening strategies tailored to increasing awareness for communities about malaria, importance of going hospital and early treatment-seeking behavior is essential.

Onchocerciasis volvulus is the second highest infectious cause of blindness in the world, and is estimated to affect 37 million people, of whom 99% reside in sub-Saharan Africa. As a public health problem the disease is most closely associated with Africa, where it constitutes a serious obstacle to socio-economic development. Using the human ecology triad, this paper evaluates the dynamic interplay of population, habitat and behavioural factors in predicting perceived exposure to onchocerciasis among coastal inhabitants in Tanzania. Generalized linear models with log-log link function were fitted to cross-sectional survey data on 1253 individuals in three contiguous coastal regions. A significant proportion of respondents (28%) perceived that they were exposed to onchocerciasis. Residents in urban locations irrespective of wealth status were less likely to report living in onchocerciasis endemic environment compared with their rural counterparts. This is understandable given that urban areas of Tanga and Dar es Salaam are definitely non-endemic and perceived risk of onchocerciasis is related to the fact of living in an endemic area with active onchocercasis transmission. Individuals who had attained secondary (OR=0.51, p<0.01) or tertiary education (OR=0.37, p<0.001), and reported easy access to health facility (OR=0.53, p<0.001) were all less likely to report perceived exposure to onchocerciasis. This is not surprising because higher level of education and easy access to health facilities are characteristics of urban compared with rural areas. Policy implications suggest the need for the Tanzanian national neglected tropical disease control programme (TZNTDCP) to intensify health and educational campaigns at the community level and address susceptibility of vulnerable populations to the disease especially, for rural dwellers.

Background: Inappropriate use of antibiotics has been reported to contribute to the emergence and increase of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in the world. Antibiotics are prescription-only medicines to be dispensed to a person with a legal prescription inscribed by a qualified medical practitioner. Enforcing the dispensing of antibiotics with prescription is a way to promote the rational use of antibiotics and preventing the development and spread of AMR. It is, therefore, the responsibility of a pharmacist to dispense or supervise the dispensing of antibiotics in pharmacies and ensure its rational use. This study aimed to assess pharmacists’ knowledge, attitude and practice regarding the dispensing of antibiotics without prescription in Tanzania. Methods: An online semi-structured questionnaire was designed, tested and shared with licensed pharmacists in Tanzania through an invitation link sent in their official WhatsApp groups. A list of names, contacts and emails of licensed pharmacists obtained from the Pharmacy Council was used to directly contact and request pharmacist to fill the questionnaire, in case the pharmacist contact was not on WhatsApp, a text SMS invitation was sent. Study data were collected and managed using REDCap electronic data capture tools hosted at Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Data were then downloaded and exported into Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20 for data analysis; Chi-square test was used to test association for categorical data, where a p-value of less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Results: More than 75% of pharmacists had excellent knowledge about the legal requirements for dispensing antibiotics and of the AMR challenge. Of the interviewed pharmacists, seventy-four percent admitted to dispensing antibiotics without prescription in their daily practice. The main reasons for administering antibiotics without prescription were the profitability nature of pharmacy business, a failure of the patient to get a prescription and lack of stringent regulatory authorities. Penicillins, macrolides and floroquinolones were the classes of antibiotics mostly dispensed without a prescription. Conclusion: The study shows that the dispensing of antibiotics without prescription is a common practice in Tanzania. The regulatory authorities should make regular inspections in pharmacies to detect this malpractice. The community should be trained on the importance of taking laboratory tests before getting medications for their sickness by a qualified medical practitioner.

Sickle cell disease (SCD) is a blood disorder caused by a point mutation on the beta globin gene resulting in the synthesis of abnormal hemoglobin. Fetal hemoglobin (HbF) reduces disease severity, but the levels vary from one individual to another. Most research has focused on common variants which differ across populations and hence do not fully account for HbF variation. To investigate rare and common variants influencing HbF levels in SCD, we performed targeted next generation sequencing covering exonic and other significant fetal hemoglobin-associated loci, including BCL11A, MYB, HOXA9, HBB, HBG1, HBG2, CHD4, KLF1, MBD3, ZBTB7A and PGLYRP1. Results revealed a range of functionally relevant genetic variants. Notably, there were significantly more deletions in individuals with high HbF levels (11% vs 0.9%). We identified frameshift deletion in individuals with high HbF levels and frameshift insertions in individuals with low HbF. CHD4 and MBD3 genes, interacting in the same sub-network, were identified to have a significant number of pathogenic or non-synonymous mutations in individuals with low HbF levels, suggesting an important role of epigenetic pathways in the regulation of HbF synthesis. This study provides new insights in selecting essential variants associated with extreme HbF levels in SCD.

This paper examines the challenges to justice in Tanzania posed by the proliferation of anonymous social media accounts and the dissemination of offensive and harassing content. The study analyzes the legal frameworks governing online content in Tanzania, including the Electronic and Postal Communications Act and the Electronic and Postal Communications (Online Content) Regulation of 2018, and highlights their shortcomings in identifying the publishers of such content. The paper also discusses the Legal and Human Rights Center's challenge to the EPOCA regulation and the authorities and responsible organs identified to deter, adjudicate, and open court processes in dealing with alleged offenses arising from online published content. Ultimately, the paper argues that a better understanding of the hindrances to justice in Tanzania must consider the paucity of legal frameworks governing published and online social media content. The findings of this study have significant implications for policymakers, legal practitioners, and civil society organizations seeking to promote accountability and protect human rights in Tanzania.

Climate information can help vulnerable populations anticipate disasters before they happen and enable communities prepare for and cope with them. A complementary log-log regression model based on quantitative study in coastal communities in Tanzania was used to assess the likelihood of the rural poor, rural non poor, urban poor, and urban non poor to receive early warning information about flood, drought and other disasters. Individuals in the urban poor category were 35% less likely to receive early warning information about flood, drought and other disasters whereas urban non-poor residents were 49% more likely to receive same. This disadvantage to the urban poor persists even when adaptive capacity, geographical location and socio-environmental factors are accounted. Nuclear households consisting of a male head and female partner who have children or not had higher likelihood of receiving early warning information on flood, drought and other disasters (OR = 1.47, p < 0.001) compared with their counterparts in female-centred households (no husband or male partner). Residents with tertiary education were more likely (OR = 1.91, p < 0.001) to report that they had received early warning information about flood, drought and other disasters compared with their counterparts without any formal education. This zero-order relationship was completed mediated by geographical location and socio-environmental factors in the multivariate model. The results underline the key role access to climate- and disaster-related information play in enhancing adaptive capacity to reduce vulnerability to natural hazards, as well as the importance of targeting the most vulnerable households in policy interventions to improve resilience in the face of a changing climate.

Increased demand for wearing face masks, lack of surgical masks and N95 respirators during the coronavirus pandemic created alternative needs for cloth masks. Therefore, to determine filtration efficacy, reusability and duration of wearing new and hand washed cloth masks, the bacteria filtration efficacy was tested using Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. Cotton cloth masks; single layer without pleats and with pleats, double layer with canvas filter in the middle, double layer with stiff filter in the middle, double layer with pleats on both sides and locally made and imported surgical masks and N95 respirators were used. Bacterial suspension was sprayed over outer surface and swabbed from inner surface at 0hrs, 4thhr, 8thhr and 12thhr. Similar procedure was performed to hand washed and ironed cotton cloth masks. After 24 hours of incubation, single layer without pleats and with pleats had no filtration efficacy(0-100%). Double layer with stiff filter in the middle and double layer with pleats on both sides had higher filtration efficacy(99.96-100%), this filtration efficacy remained up to three occasions of hand washing with soap and water, conferring protection up to 12hours. Filtration efficacy of surgical masks made locally, imported and N95 respirators were 90-100%, 99.99-100%, and 99.99-100% respectively.

All infections are potentially curable as long as the etiological agents are susceptible to antimicrobials. The increased rate at which antimicrobials are becoming ineffective is a global health risk of increasing concern that threatens withdrawal of beneficial antimicrobials for disease control. Increased demand for food of animal origin, in particular eggs, meat and milk has led to intensification and commercial production systems where excessive use and misuse of antimicrobials may prevail. Antimicrobials, handled and used by farmers and animal attendants with no formal education may predispose to incorrect dosages, misuse, incorrect applications and non-adherence to withdrawal periods. A multimethod approach (desk review, field study and interviews) was used. Relevant establishments were also visited. High levels of resistance to penicillin G, chloramphenicol, streptomycin and oxytetracycline have been reported especially for Actinobacter pyogenes, Staphylococcus hyicus, Staphylococcus intermedius and Staphylococcus aureus from dairy cattle with mastitis and in humans. Similar trends were found in poultry where eggs and meat are contaminated with Escherichia coli strains resistant to amoxicillin + clavulanate, sulphamethoxazole and neomycin. An increasing trend of emerging multidrug resistant E. coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus, and Salmonella was also found in food animals. An in-crease in methicillin resistant Staphlococcus aureus (MRSA) and extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) in the livestock sector in Tanzania have been reported. Specific antimicrobials resistant to were ampicillin, augmentin, gentamicin, cotrimoxazole, tetracycline, amoxicillin, ampicillin, gentamicin, streptomycin, erythromycin, tetracycline, ciprofloxacin, nalidixic acid, azithromycin, chloramphenicol, tylosin, erythromycin, cefuroxime, norfloxacin and ciprofloxacin. An in-creased usage of antimicrobials for prophylaxis, anaphylaxis and therapeutics against pathogens and for growth promotion in livestock, aquaculture and crops production were observed. One Health strategic approach is advocated to combat AMR in the food and agriculture sectors in Tanzania. Practical recommendations include a) legislation review and implementation, b) AMU, AMR and AR awareness and advocacy among stakeholders along the value chain, c) strengthening of surveillance and monitoring programs for AMU, AMR and AR, d) enhance development and use of rapid and innovative diagnostic tests and promotion biosecurity principles and e) good husbandry practices. The utilization of this information to improve public health policies and reduce the burden of AMR will be beneficial.

Long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) have been the main contributor to the reduction of malaria in the past two decades in sub-Saharan Africa. Development of pyrethroid insecticide resistance threatens the effectiveness of these LLINs, especially when nets become holed and the insecticide decays. Three classes of dual active ingredient (AI) LLINs, have been assessed for their physical durability as follows: 1) Royal Guard®, combining pyriproxyfen, which is known to disrupt female reproduction and fertility of eggs, and a pyrethroid alpha-cypermethrin; 2) Interceptor® G2, two adulticides with differing modes of action; chlorfenapyr and alpha-cypermethrin; 3) OlysetTM Plus incorporates permethrin (pyrethroid) and a synergist, piperonyl butoxide, to enhance the potency of pyrethroid insecticides; all nets were compared to standard pyrethroid only net (Interceptor®). About 40,000 nets of each type were distributed in February 2019 to different villages in Misungwi. A total of 3072 LLINs were followed at 6, 12, 24, 30 and 36 months to assess survivorship and fabric integrity in a community setting. The median functional survival were less than three years with Interceptor®, Interceptor® G2 and Royal Guard® having 1.9 year each and 0.9 years for OlysetTM Plus . After 36 months, 90% of OlysetTM Plus and Royal Guard® and 87% of Interceptor® G2 were no longer present (thrown away) in the households due to wear and tear, compared to 79% for standard Interceptor®. Short life spans of all assessed LLINs were driven by material of the net, rather than social economic status and housing material. All dual AI LLINs have a poor textile durability with OlysetTM Plus being the worst of the three.

Hematological and biochemical reference values in sickle cell disease (SCD) are crucial for patient management and evaluation of interventions. This study was conducted at Muhimbili National Hospital (MNH) in Dar es Salaam, to establish laboratory reference ranges in SCD at steady-state. Patients were grouped into five age groups with respects to their sex. Aggregate functions were used to handle repeated measures within the indi-vidual level in each age group. A nonparametric approach was used to smooth the curves and a parametric approach was used to determine SCD normal ranges. Comparison between males and females and against the general population was documented. Data from 4,422 patients collected from 2004-2015 were analyzed. The majority of the patients (35.41%) were children aged between 5-11 years. There were no significant differences (p≥0.05) in mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC), lymphocytes, basophils and bilirubin direct observed between males and females. Significant differences (p<0.05) were observed in all selected parameters across age groups except neutrophils and MCHC in adults, as well as platelets and alkaline phosphatase in infants when SCD estimates were compared to the general population. Laboratory reference ranges in SCD at steady-state were different from those of the general population and varied with sex and age. The established reference ranges for SCD at steady-state will be a helpful in the management and monitoring of the progress of SCD.

This study examined carbon footprint as an indicator of soil health at spatiotemporal scales with different land use types and varying soil depths in Morogoro, representing the eastern agroecological zone of Tanzania. Soils are highly weathered and acidic. The specific objectives were twofold: (1) To quantify soil organic carbon (SOC) at varying soil depths (0–15 cm, 15–30 cm) in contrasting land use types, including tractor cultivated, hand-hoe cultivated, ranch land, and reserved/bare land type; (2) To predict carbon management indices (CMI) of the studied land use types through regresses SOC, carbon pool index (CPI), and lability index (LI) at varying soil depths. Composite soil samples were based on transects of three main plots each (replicates) of 20 m by 50 m. Results showed that land use types and soil depths significantly (P <0.001) affected SOC (3.4%) and CMI (126.3). Hand hoe cultivated land at 0–15 cm recorded CMI of 259.8. Regression analysis showed an increase in CMI ranging from 97% to 99%, with standard error ranging from 2.177 to 46.096. Similar trends, but with disparity magnitudes in regressed parameters provide useful insight into transformations of organic carbon in contrasting land use types.

Antimicrobial use (AMU) is one of the major drivers of emerging antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Surveillance of AMU, a pillar of AMR stewardship (AMS), helps devise strategies to mitigate AMR. This descriptive, longitudinal retrospective study quantified the trends in human antibiotic utilization between 2010 and 2016 using data on all antibiotics imported for systemic human use into Tanzania's mainland. Regression and time series analyses were used to establish trends in antibiotics use. A total of 12,073 records for antibiotics were retrieved, totaling 154.51Daily Defined Doses per 1,000 inhabitants per day (DID) with a mean (± standard deviation) of 22.07 (±48.85) DID. The private sector contributed 93.76%% of utilized antibiotics. The top-ranking antibiotics were amoxicillin, metronidazole, tetracycline, ciprofloxacin and cefalexin. The DDIs and percentage contribution of these antibiotics were 53.78 (34.81%), 23.86 (15.44), 20.53 (13.29), 9.27 (6.0) and 6.94 (4.49), respectively. The time series model predicted significant increase in utilization(p-value =0.002). The model forecasted that by 2022, the total antibiotics consumed would reach 89.6 DIDs, corresponding to a 13-fold increase compared to 2010. Government intervention to curb inappropriate antibiotic utilization to mitigate the rising threat of antibiotic resistance should focus on implementing AMS programs in pharmacies and hospitals in Tanzania.

The study assessed the trapping efficacy of locally-modified 1) Gravid Aedes Trap(GAT) lined with insecticide-treated net (ITN) as a killing agent, 2) Autocidal Gravid Ovitrap(AGO) with sticky board in the semi-field system (SFS) and field setting. Fully-balanced Latin square experiments were conducted to compare GAT lined with ITN vs AGO, both with either yeast or grass infusion. Biogents-Sentinel (BGS) with BG-Lure and no CO2 was used as standard trap for Aedes mosquitoes. In the SFS, GAT outperformed AGO in collecting both nulliparous (65% vs 49%,OR=2.22,[95%CI:1.89-2.60],p