This paper reviews the current research on the speciation and determination of mercury by various analytical instruments such as, atomic absorption spectrometer (AAS), voltammeter, inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometer (ICP-OES), ICP-atomic emission spectrometer (AES), ICP-mass spectrometer (MS), atomic fluorescence spectrometer (AFS), spectrophotometer, spectrofluorometer, and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Approximately 126 research papers on the speciation and determination of mercury by various analytical instruments published in international journals since 2015 are reviewed. All the analytical parameters, such as limit of detection, linearity range, quality assurance and quality control studies, applicability, and interfering ions studies evaluated in the reviewed articles are tabulated. This review find outs the lack of information on speciation studies of mercury in recent years. Another important prediction from this review is authors are not much studied about the concentrations of mercury in the atmosphere.

Thorium (Th) is a natural radioactive element present in the environment and has a potential to be used as a nuclear fuel. Relatively little is known about the influence and toxicity of Th in the environment. In the present study, the toxicity of Th to the green algae Chlorella pyrenoidosa (C. Pyrenoidosa) was evaluated by algal growth inhibition, biochemical assays and morphologic observations. In the cultural medium (OECD TG 201), Th(NO₃)₄ was transformed to amorphous precipitation of Th(OH)₄ due to hydrolysis. Th was toxic to C. Pyrenoidosa, with a 96 h half maximum effective concentration (EC₅₀) of 10.4 μM. Scanning electron microscopy shows that Th-containing aggregates were attached onto the surface of the algal cells, and transmission electron microscopy indicates the internalization of nano-sized Th precipitates and ultrastructural alterations of the algal cells. The heteroagglomeration between Th(OH)₄ precipitation and alga cells and enhanced oxidative stress might play important roles in the toxicity of Th. To our knowledge, this is the first report of the toxicity of Th to algae with its chemical species in the exposure medium. This finding provides useful information on understanding the fate and toxicity of Th in the aquatic environment.

Man-made chemicals have played an important role in the development of our modern society. They have revolutionized such areas as healthcare and farming and they are essential in the manufacture of a wide range of consumer products. In studying the behavior of radionuclides and metals in the bottom sediment-water system, special attention is paid to identifying the forms of existence of pollutants in terms of substantiating their migration ability and, as a result, the po-tential for their subsequent spread, i.e. secondary pollution. On the example of bottom sediments of the Yenisei River, such radionuclides as K-40, Cs-137 are shown to be present mostly in the undecomposed residue. Eu-252 and Am-241 are associated with the organic component of bottom sediments, consisting of plant and animal remains, as well as soil washed away from the floodplain part of the river bed. The radionuclide Co-60, depending on the mineralogical composition of bottom sediments, can either be almost evenly distributed between the undecomposed residue and organic matter, or dominate in the undecomposed residue. Thus, it is shown that man-made ra-dionuclides can have a high tendency to migrate, both in the thickness of bottom sediments and between such phases as bottom sediments and water.

Although Darwin‘s evolutionary mutation theory has been widely accepted, many endeavors have been tried to challenge it. With more and more observation of successful hybridization and hybrids, the sexual isolation between species has become vague. The mechanism of evolution has been expanded from the classical model of evolution to multiple routes of speciation. Furthermore, a fundamental crossbreeding theory has been raised and proved by two lines of evidences: paleopolyploidy and fan-shaped spectrum of species. Ancient genome duplications are widespread throughout eukaryotic lineages, particularly in plants. The genome polyploidization, especially in the somatic cell hybridization, can break through the sexual incompatibility between diploid counterparts to hybridize and produce new species. By comparing characteristics, all species in every taxon, both in the extinct fossil and extant organisms, can be arranged into fan-shaped spectrum according to their similarity: left primitive type-middle advanced type-right primitive type. The species are primitive at the two ends and advanced at the middle. The primitive two species always resemble two types of more primitive species that can be confirmed as their ancestors respectively, and the middle species is half similar to the two ancestors respectively. These suggest that the species in the spectrum come from two different ancestors by crossbreeding and gene combination. As a sum, advanced species originated from crossbreeding of two primitive ancestors, by major method of polyploidization, and proved by results of fan-shaped spectrum of species. Then, sex is the cause, force and opportunity for evolution.

Free-living terrestrial mites (Acari) have persisted through numerous glacial cycles in Antarctica. Very little is known, however, of their genetic diversity and distribution, particularly within the Ross Sea region. To redress this gap, we sampled for mites throughout the Ross Sea region, East Antarctica, including Victoria Land and the Queen Maud Mountains (QMM), covering a latitudinal range of 72-85oS, as well as from Lauft Island near Mt Siple (73oS) in West Antarctica and Macquarie Island (54oS) in the sub-Antarctic. We assessed genetic diversity using mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I gene sequences (COI-5P DNA barcode region), and also morphologically identified voucher specimens. We obtained 130 sequences representing four genera: Nanorchestes (n = 30 sequences), Stereotydeus (n = 46), Coccorhagidia (n = 18) and Eupodes (n = 36). Tree-based analyses (maximum likelihood) revealed 13 genetic clusters, representing as many as 23 putative species indicated by Barcode Index Numbers (BINs) from the Barcode of Life Datasystems (BOLD) database. We found evidence for geographically-isolated cryptic species, e.g. within Stereotydeus belli and S. punctatus, as well as unique genetic groups occurring in sympatry (e.g. Nanorchestes spp. in QMM). Collectively, these data confirm high genetic divergence as a consequence of geographic isolation over evolutionary timescales. From a conservation perspective, additional targeted sampling of understudied areas in the Ross Sea region should be prioritised, as further diversity is likely to be found for these short-range endemic mites.

An in-depth understanding of the Se uptake and metabolism in plants is necessary for developing Se biofortification strategies. Thus, hydroponic experiments were conducted to investigate the associated processes and mechanisms of organic Se [selenomethionine (SeMet) and selenomethionine-oxide (SeOMet)] uptake, translocation, transformation and their interaction in wheat, in comparison to inorganic Se. Results showed that Se uptake by roots and the root-to-shoot translocation factor under the SeMet treatment were higher than those under the selenite, selenate, and SeOMet treatments. The uptake and translocation of SeMet were higher than those of SeOMet within 72 h, although the differences gradually narrowed with time. The uptake of SeMet and SeOMet was also sensitive to the aquaporin inhibitor: AgNO3 addition resulted in 99.5% and 99.9% inhibition of Se in root in the SeMet and SeOMet treatments, respectively. Once absorbed by root, were rapidly assimilated to other Se forms, and SeMet and Se-methyl-selenocysteine (MeSeCys) were the dominant species in SeMet and SeOMet-treated plants, while notably, an unidentified Se form was also found in the root and xylem sap under the SeMet treatment. In addition, within 16 h, SeOMet inhibited the uptake and translocation of SeMet, while the interaction was weakened with longer treatment time. Taken together, the present study provides new insights for the uptake and transformation processes of organic Se within plants.

Iron, a crucial element in our environment, plays a vital role in numerous natural processes. Understanding the presence and concentration of iron in the environment is very important, as it impacts various aspects of our planet’s health. On-site detection and speciation of iron are significant for several reasons. In this context, the present work aims to evaluate the applicability of voltammetry for on-site determination of iron and its possible speciation using a portable voltammetric analyzer. Voltammetry offers the advantage of convenience and cost-effectiveness. For iron (III) determination a modification of a glassy carbon electrode (GCE) with an antimony-bismuth film (SbBiFE) using acetate buffer (pH=4) as supporting electrolyte was used. The technique adopted was Square Wave Adsoptive Cathodic Stripping Voltammetry (SW-AdCSV) and we used 1-(2-piridylazo)-2-naphthol (PAN) as iron (III) ligand. Linearity, repeatability, detection limit and accuracy were determined using synthetic solutions, then a Standard Reference Material (SRM) 1643f - Trace Elements in Water was used for validation measurements in real matrix. The procedure was finally applied to real samples (tap, lake and sea water) and the results obtained were compared by Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES). The results obtained demonstrated the excellent applicability of the proposed on-site voltammetric procedure for the determination of iron and its speciation in water.

During the last two decades, ecological speciation has been a major research theme in evolutionary biology. Ecological speciation occurs when reproductive isolation between populations evolves as a result of niche differentiation. Phytophagous insects represent model systems for the study of this evolutionary process. The host-plants on which these insects feed and often spend parts of their life cycle constitute ideal agents of divergent selection for these organisms. Adaptation to feeding on different host-plant species can potentially lead to ecological specialization of populations and subsequent speciation. This process is thought to have given birth to the astonishing diversity of phytophagous insects and is often put forward in macroevolutionary scenarios of insect diversification. Consequently, numerous phylogenetic studies on phytophagous insects have aimed at testing whether speciation driven by host-plant adaptation is the main pathway for the diversification of the groups under investigation. The increasing availability of comprehensive and well-resolved phylogenies and the recent developments in phylogenetic comparative methods are offering an unprecedented opportunity to test hypotheses on insect diversification at a macroevolutionary scale, in a robust phylogenetic framework. Our purpose here is to review the contribution of phylogenetic analyses to investigate the importance of plant-mediated speciation in the diversification of phytophagous insects and to present suggestions for future developments in this field.

No single evolutionary event has been identified as the cause for the final emergence of our species. I propose that a mutation on CD155 receptor gene occurred to establish a symbiosis with poliovirus, which exerted its beneficial impact via RNA dependent non-genetic transgenerational inheritance, which caused a qualitative enhancement of cognitive functions. I posit that this mutation occurred in what we call, Anatomically Modern Humans, our immediate ancestor species and that the disruption of this symbiosis causes autism spectrum disorder. Positive selection of CD155 to the extent of becoming a species defining characteristic, the chronology of autism spectrum disorder prevalence increase and continued increase, the multigenerational nature of RNA inheritance, the universal infection of humans by poliovirus and a very low associated mortality rate, and several other factors support this hypothesis. Specific genetic, epidemiological and sperm miRNA content studies are suggested to test this hypothesis.

Speciation analysis is a relevant topic since the (eco)toxicity, bioavailability, bio (geo)chemical cycles, and mobility of a given element depend on its chemical forms (oxidation state, organic ligands, etc.). Reliability of analytical results for chemical species of elements depends mostly on the maintaining of their stability during sample pretreatment step and on the selectivity of further separation step. Solid phase extraction (SPE) is a matter of choice as most suitable and widely used procedure for both enrichment of chemical species of elements and their separation. Features of sorbent material are of great importance to ensure extraction efficiency from one side and selectivity from other side of SPE procedure. This review presents an update on the application of polymeric materials in solid-phase extraction used in non-chromatographic methods for speciation analysis.

Reticulate evolution through the interchanging of genetic components across organisms can impact significantly on the fitness and adaptation of species. Bread wheat (Triticum aestivum subsp. aestivum) is one of the most important crops in the world. Allopolyploid speciation, frequent hybridization, extensive introgression, and occasional horizontal gene transfer (HGT) have been shaping a typical paradigm of reticulate evolution in bread wheat and its wild relatives, which is likely to have a substantial influence on phenotypic traits and environmental adaptability of bread wheat. In this review, we outlined the evolutionary history of bread wheat and its wild relatives with a highlight on the interspecific hybridization events, demonstrating the reticulate relationship between species/subspecies in the genera Triticum and Aegilops. Furthermore, we discussed the genetic mechanisms and evolutionary significance underlying the introgression of bread wheat and its wild relatives. An in-depth understanding of the evolutionary process of Triticum species should be beneficial to future genetic study and breeding of bread wheat.

This study reports on the assessment of the growth potential of five edible vegetables which were grown in Cr (VI) spiked soils. The vegetable plants that were used in this study were Vigna angularis, Cicer arietinum, Spinacia oleracea, Amaranthus dubius Thell and Phaseolus vulgaris. Dried ground samples from roots, stems and leaves were analysed for various oxidation states of Cr. The daily intake of chromium (DIC), hazard quotient (HQ) and hazard index (HI) methods were employed to assess the potential human health risks posed by these Cr oxidation states through vegetable consumption. The results showed that Vigna angularis was the only vegetable that germinated in highly concentrated Cr (VI) in the simulated soil (456 mg/kg). The highest bioaccumulation factor of CrT in the roots was found in Cicer arietinum at 3.5 ± 0.51 mg/kg DW. The highest translocation factor in stem was that of Cicer arietinum and Vigna angularis at 1.0 ± 0.00, while Cicer arietinum and Spinacia oleracea translocated highest Cr to the leaf at 2.1 ± 0.21. A child or an adult consuming such contaminated Cicer arietinum were likely to take in between 508 -785 mg/kg/day of total Cr which were above the World Health Organisation guidelines of 220 and 340 mg/kg/day, respectively. The highest HQ was found in Cicer arietinum at 8.7 and 13.4 for adults and children, respectively. The same species of plants had also high HI at 17.4 and 27.2 for adults and children respectively. This indicated that consumers of the edible vegetables grown in Cr (VI) rich soil may be exposed to health risks and the children were more likely to be vulnerable to these adverse effects than the adult.

Our ability to cure common diseases is still in danger due to the creation and spread of bacteria and fungi that are resistant to drugs and has developed new resistance mechanisms. The increasing global expansion of multi- and pan-resistant bacteria commonly referred to as "superbugs," which cause diseases that cannot be treated with current antimicrobial medications like antibiotics, is particularly concerning. Indirect and direct risks to public health are posed by microorganisms that are resistant to antibiotics in food. Food can get contaminated via cross-contamination, intentionally introducing resistance genes during food preparation, and antibiotic-resistant bacteria in food. Consuming unprocessed or unpreserved food products increases the danger of transferring antimicrobial resistance to people and other animals. Stressed cells in food can have an impact on food quality, safety, and security. They can also contribute to the development of resistance and afterwards spread it to unintended organisms in the food chain. These reviews look at a variety of topics to address the question of how antimicrobial resistance mechanisms work. The various types of bacteria that make up infections are examined, as well as the usage of antimicrobial agents and the requirement for alternative antimicrobial agents that will discourage the use of synthetic antimicrobial agents. Additionally, specific details are provided regarding the uniqueness, interdependence, and phylogenicity of organisms as well as their interactions with various ecological media. Thus, it is clear why it is important to work with food producers and handlers to stop the spread of pathogenic organisms.

It is desirable to upgrade previous evolutionary theories, which have remained incomplete and controversial for decades. Here we employ the concept of carbon-based entities (CBEs), which include methane, amino acids, proteins, organisms, and other entities containing relatively many carbon atoms. We deduce the driving force, mechanisms, steps, modes, tempos of CBE evolution, through integration of biology, physics, and chemistry using logics for complex issues. We hence establish the Carbon-Based Evolutionary Theory (CBET). The CBET suggests that evolution is the increase in hierarchy, diversity, fitness of CBEs under natural selection and driven by thermodynamics due to the chemical effect of the thermodynamic features of the Earth on CBEs. It provides better explanations for life origin, macroevolution events, natural selection, sympatric speciation, and evolution tempos than previous evolutionary theories. It reveals the evolutionary basis of multiple important social notions, including diversity, collaboration, altruism, obeying rules, and proper increase in freedom. It refutes some wrong notions in thermodynamics, including negative entropy (negentropy) and that biological order is equal to thermodynamic order, which have misled many people. The CBET is supported by its deduction and application. It could be a rare bridge linking laws of thermodynamics, evolution of life, and development of human society, and could have great significance in various sciences.

The integrity of the genome is crucial for the survival of all living organisms. However, genomes need to adapt to survive certain pressures and for this propose use several mechanisms to diversify. Chromosomal instability (CIN) is one of the main mechanism leading to the creation of genomic heterogeneity by altering the number of chromosomes as well as changing their structures. In this review we will discuss the different chromosomal patterns and changes observed in speciation, in evolutional biology as well as during tumor progression. By nature, human genome shows induction of diversity during gametogenesis but as well during tumorigenesis that can conclude in drastic changes such as whole genome doubling to more discrete changes as indels as well as the recent discovered complex chromosomal rearrangement chromothripsis. More importantly, changes observed during speciation are strikingly similar to the genomic evolution observed during tumor progression and resistance to therapy. The different origins of CIN will be treated as the importance of double strand breaks (DSB) or the consequences of micronuclei. We will also explain the mechanisms behind the controlled DSBs and recombination of homologous chromosomes observed during meiosis, to explain how errors lead to similar pattern observed during tumorigenesis. Then, we will also list several diseases associated to CIN resulting in fertility issue, miscarriage, genetic rare diseases and cancer. Understanding better chromosomal instability as a whole is primordial for the understanding of mechanisms leading to tumor progression.

Background: The Hengduan Mountains are one of the most species–rich mountainous areas in the world. The origin and evolution of such a remarkable biodiversity are likely to be associated with geological or climatic dynamics, as well as taxon-specific biotic processes (e.g., hybridization, polyploidization, etc.). Here, we investigate the mechanisms fostering the diversification of the endemic Himalopsyche martynovi complex, a poorly known group of aquatic insects. Methods: We used multiple allelic datasets generated from 691 AHE loci to reconstruct species and RaxML phylogenetic trees. We selected the most reliable phylogenetic tree to perform network and gene flow analyses. Results: Phylogenetic reconstructions and network analysis identified three clades, including H. epikur, H. martynovi sensu stricto and H. cf. martynovi. Himalopsyche martynovi sensu stricto and H. cf. martynovi present an intermediate morphology between H. epikur and H. viteceki, the closest known relative to the H. martynovi–complex. The gene flow analysis revealed extensive gene flow among these lineages. Conclusion: Our results suggest that H. viteceki and H. epikur are likely to have contributed to the evolution of H. martynovi sensu stricto and H. cf. martynovi via gene flow, and thus, our study provides insights in the diversification process of a lesser–known ecological group, and hints at the potential role of gene flow in the emergence of biological novelty in the Hengduan Mountains.

Reproductive isolating barriers are a crucial element in the speciation process. There are various types of barriers, and within those that act early in the speciation process, the behavioral one can play an important role in isolating populations or closely related species. It has been shown that the high diversity of some taxa correlates with the variation of sexual signals, which facilitate isolation. Here it is explored whether chemical signals may contribute to the high diversity of Liolaemus lizards, which has more than 290 species. Population chemical discrimination was investigated in two co-distributed species, L. tenuis and L. lemniscatus. The studied populations were closely located and likely belonged to the same genetic lineages. Lizards of both species discriminated between scents of their own and different populations, and in most cases, scents from their population were preferred. Results suggest a fast evolution of scents, and their recognition, and there for the ethological barriers associated with the chemical modality may evolve fast. However, because the studied species differed in the strength of the exhibited population chemical discrimination, ethological barriers evolve at different rates across species. It can be concluded that ethological barriers involving the chemical modality may disrupt species' cohesion, contributing to Liolaemus diversification, in synergy or not with geographical barriers.

Bacteria currently included in Rhizobium leguminosarum are too diverse to be considered a single species, so we can refer to this as a species complex (the Rlc). We have found 429 publicly available genome sequences that fall within the Rlc and these show that the Rlc is a distinct entity, well separated from other species in the genus. Its sister taxon is R. anhuiense. We constructed a phylogeny based on concatenated sequences of 120 universal (core) genes, and calculated pairwise average nucleotide identity (ANI) between all genomes. From these analyses, we concluded that the Rlc includes 18 distinct genospecies, plus 7 unique strains that are not placed in these genospecies. Each genospecies is separated by a distinct gap in ANI values, usually at around 96% ANI, implying that it is a 'natural' unit. Five of the genospecies include the type strains of named species: R. laguerreae, R. sophorae, R. ruizarguesonis, "R. indicum" and R. leguminosarum itself. The 16S ribosomal RNA sequence is remarkably diverse within the Rlc, but does not distinguish the genospecies. Partial sequences of housekeeping genes, which have frequently been used to characterise isolate collections, can mostly be assigned unambiguously to a genospecies, but alleles within a genospecies do not always form a clade, so single genes are not a reliable guide to the true phylogeny of the strains. We conclude that access to a large number of genome sequences is a powerful tool for characterising the diversity of bacteria, and that taxonomic conclusions should be based on all available genome sequences, not just those of type strains.

The origination of most free-living animal species is predictable. ‘Light’ order production in the trophic levels below is the key. Absent from the abiotic environment (pre-primary level) and prokaryotes, ‘light’ order consists of differences in species composition between highly-developed, species-packed communities in which extinction may be the precursor to speciation, particularly ecologically comparable tropical continental lowland ones of Africa, Australia, India, and South America. Based on but not itself of matter and non-burnable, its nil waste heat content ‘compensates’ for burned-up food energy. Where the amounts of it on infra-apical trophic levels form an inverted pyramid like waste heat’s, occupancy of trophic levels from primary to apical is predictable (variation and selection assumed). Terminal non-inversion predicts post-apical vacancy. Examined communities were from grasslands (grasses, large grazing mammals, large carnivores), and woodlands (woody plants, butterflies, insect-eating birds, raptorial birds). Linnaeus’s binomial classificational system turned out to be unexpectedly rich in new content. A new object of study, the neoLinnaean, is recognised and a new process, the neoLyellian, advanced to explain it. Relations to Darwin’s and Lyell’s non-predictive theories of change, to ecology and evolution, to thermodynamics, statistical mechanics and quantum mechanics, and to neurology are discussed.

In this work, kinetics of the reaction between 5,10,15,20-tetrakis(N-methylpyridium-4-yl)porphyrin and Ni2+ species were investigated in aqueous solution at 25 ±1 ºC in I = 0.10 M (NaNO3). Speciation of Ni2+ was carried out in I = 0.10 M (NaNO3) in order to provide the distribution of the Ni2+ species with different solution pH. The experimental data have been compared with the speciation diagram constructed from the values of hydrolysis constants of Ni2+ ion. Speciation data showed that the hexaaquanickel(II), [Ni(H2O)6]2+, ions take place in hydrolysis reactions through formation of [Ni(OH2)6-n(OH)n]2-n species with solution pH. Based on the speciation of Ni2+ and pH dependent rate constants, rate expression can be written as: d[Ni(TMPyP)4+]/dt = (k1[Ni2+(aq)] + k2[Ni(OH)+(aq)] + k3[Ni(OH)2o(aq)] + k4[Ni(OH)3-(aq)])[H2TMPyP4+], where k1, k2, k3 and k4 were found to be k1 = (0.62 ± 0.22) × 10-2; k2 = (3.60 ± 0.40) × 10-2; k3 = (2.09 ± 0.52) × 10-2, k4 = (0.53 ± 0.04) × 10-2 M-1s-1 at 25 ±1 °C, respectively. Kinetic results showed that monohydroxo, [Ni(H2O)5(OH)]+, is the most reactive among the [Ni(OH2)6-n(OH)n]2-n species. The enhanced reactivity has been ascribed to the formation of hydrogen bonding between oxygen atom of hydroxyl group of the [Ni(H2O)5(OH)]+ species and the pyrrolic hydrogen atom of the [H2TMPyP]4+. The rate of formation of [Ni(II)TMPyP]4+ complex was to be 3.99 × 10-2 M-1s-1 in I = 0.10 M, NaNO3 (25 ± 1 ºC). Ionic strength effect on the reaction rate is suggested that the net charge of the tetracationic porphyrin is to be +3.6 on the basis of Brønsted-Bjerrum equation. The UV-Vis and fluorescence data revealed that [Ni(II)TMPyP]4+ and H2(TMPyP)4+ interact with DNA, and UV-Vis results suggest that Ni(II)-porphyrin and free base porphyrin interact with DNA via outside binding with self-stacking and intercalation, respectively. Mechanism of kinetics of formation of the [Ni(II)TMPyP]4+ complex in aqueous medium is discussed. An investigation of application of the [Ni(II)TMPyP]4+ complex along with other metalloporphyrins such as Zn2+-, Ru2+-, Pt2+-, [Au(III)TMPyP]5+ as anti-COVID-19 agents is now in progress under international collaboration.

Adaptive radiations occur mostly in response to environmental variation through the evolution of key eco-morphological innovations that allow emerging species to occupy new ecological niches. However, rapid phenotypic evolution and the evolution of key novelties are likely to also occur when a couple or few species are engaged into narrow ecological interactions. To demonstrate coevolution is a difficult task; only elusive evidences confirm that coevolution is a driver of speciation and diversification. Here we propose that the adaptive radiation of the Mediterranean orchid genus Ophrys, which gave rise to ca. 350 species since the apparition of the genus is due to the particular co-evolutionary dynamics between these plants and their pollinators. We suggest that the pollination by sexual swindle used by Ophrys orchids is the main driver of this coevolution. Flowers of each Ophrys species mimic sexually receptive females of one particular insect species, mainly bees. Male bees are attracted by pseudo-pheromones emitted by Ophrys flowers that are similar to the sexual pheromones of their females. Males lured by the flower shape, color and hairiness attempt to copulate with the flower, which glues pollen on their bodies. Pollen is eventually transferred to the stigma of another flower of the same Ophrys species during similar copulation attempts. Three observations led us to propose the scenario of an asymmetric co-evolutionary relationship between Ophrys and their pollinators. Firstly, there is a strong intra-specific competition among Ophrys individuals for the attraction of their species-specific pollinators, which is due to the high learning and memorization abilities of bees that record the pheromone signatures of kin or of previously courted partner to avoid (further) copulation attempts. Mnemonic pollinators induce thus a strong selective pressure for variation in the pseudo-pheromones emitted by individual flowers, which will potentially generate shifts in pollinator species, and hence Ophrys speciation. These pollinator shifts are adaptive for new Ophrys species because they may benefit from a competitor-free space. Secondly, such shifts in pollinator species are due to the random crossing of peaks in the olfactory landscape of the pollinator guild that is syntopic to each particular Ophrys population. This selective process on individual, random variation in pseudo-pheromone bouquets is followed by directional selection on flower phenotypes that will reinforce the attraction of the new pollinator. Thirdly, pollinators use the pseudo-pheromones emitted by Ophrys to locate suitable habitats from a distance within complex landscapes. Pollinators stay fixed for a while in these habitats by the local diversity of pseudo-pheromones, which increases their probability of encounter with a receptive female and hence the reproduction probability of both sexes. Conversely, pollinators disperse out of small suitable habitats once they have memorized the local diversity of sexual pseudo-pheromone bouquet or if fecundated Ophrys flowers repel pollinators, which decreases the probability of geitonogamy (plant advantage) but limit pollinator mating with locally emergent insect females, thus limiting inbreeding and favoring gene flow (pollinator advantage). Finally, we propose several research avenues that emerged according to this scenario of adaptive radiation by assymetric coevolution between Ophrys species and their pollinators.