Tectonic Inheritance, Basin Architecture and Deep-Water Reservoir Development in the North Sinai Offshore Basin, Eastern Mediterranean, Egypt

1. Introduction

The Eastern Mediterranean Basin (EMB) is one of the world's most geologically complex and hydrocarbon-prolific sedimentary provinces, representing a key component of the former Neo-Tethyan realm and one of the most prospective offshore petroleum provinces globally [1]. Situated along the convergent boundary between the African and Eurasian plates (Figure 1), the basin preserves a prolonged tectonic history extending from Paleozoic continental fragmentation through Mesozoic passive-margin development to Cenozoic plate reorganization and ongoing plate convergence [2,3,4]. The present-day basin architecture reflects the cumulative effects of continental rifting, lithospheric stretching, thermal subsidence, subduction, basin inversion, strike-slip deformation, regional uplift, and Messinian evaporite deposition, which collectively governed basin subsidence, sediment accommodation, structural evolution, and petroleum-system development throughout the Levant, Nile Delta, and Herodotus basins [1,3,4,5,6].

During the last two decades, the discovery of giant gas fields, including Zohr, Leviathan, Tamar, and Aphrodite, has transformed the Eastern Mediterranean into one of the world's leading frontier hydrocarbon provinces. These discoveries have emphasized the fundamental role of tectonic evolution, sedimentary processes, and petroleum-system development in controlling the distribution of giant gas accumulations and have stimulated renewed interest in the tectono-stratigraphic evolution of the basin [7,8,9,10,11]. Nevertheless, exploration has been concentrated mainly within the Nile Delta and Levant basins. In contrast, the North Sinai Offshore Basin (NSOB) remains comparatively underexplored despite its strategic location between these prolific petroleum provinces.

The NSOB (Figure 1), occupies the southern passive continental margin of the EMB and forms a transitional tectonic domain where inherited Mesozoic basement structures interact with younger inversion-related and extensional fault systems [2,8,9,10]. This structural setting preserves an exceptional record of tectonic inheritance, making the basin particularly suitable for investigating how long-lived basement fabrics have controlled basin evolution, sediment dispersal, structural trap development, and hydrocarbon prospectivity through geological time.

The structural framework of the basin (Figure 2) was established during Permian–Triassic to Early Jurassic continental rifting associated with the fragmentation of northern Gondwana and the opening of the Neo-Tethys Ocean [12,13] . This extensional phase generated basement-rooted normal faults, horsts, grabens, tilted fault blocks, and half-grabens that controlled syn-rift sedimentation and established the primary basin architecture. Subsequent Jurassic–Early Cretaceous thermal subsidence transformed the southern Eastern Mediterranean into a passive continental margin characterized by widespread marine transgression and extensive carbonate-platform development [8]. Carbonate platforms preferentially developed over inherited structural highs, where stable tectonic conditions and reduced accommodation promoted shallow-marine carbonate production. Many of these carbonate build-ups subsequently evolved into inversion-related structural highs and potential hydrocarbon reservoirs during later tectonic episodes [10].

A major tectonic reorganization occurred during the Late Cretaceous–Eocene when African–Eurasian convergence generated the Syrian Arc deformation system across northern Egypt, Sinai, and the Levant [2,13]. Reactivation of earlier extensional faults produced inversion anticlines, fault-propagation folds, and uplifted structural culminations that profoundly modified basin geometry, redistributed accommodation space, and generated numerous structural traps that remain important exploration targets today [7,8,9]. During the Oligocene–Miocene, renewed extension associated with Red Sea and Gulf of Suez rifting preferentially reactivated inherited basement structures rather than creating a new tectonic framework, leading to renewed subsidence, structural compartmentalization, and development of accommodation space for thick siliciclastic successions and deep-water depositional systems [2,9,13,14].

During the Oligocene–Miocene, renewed extension associated with the development of the Red Sea and Gulf of Suez rift systems promoted further reactivation of inherited structures [5,10]. Rather than generating an entirely new structural framework, this phase preferentially exploited pre-existing zones of weakness, producing renewed subsidence, fault segmentation, block rotation, and differential accommodation. These processes contributed to the development of accommodation space for thick siliciclastic successions and deep-water depositional systems that became increasingly important components of the Miocene petroleum system [11,12,14].

The interaction between inherited structural fabrics and Miocene sedimentation exerted a first-order control on the distribution of submarine channels, channel–levee complexes, basin-floor fans, distributary systems, and mass-transport complexes, which constitute the principal deep-water reservoir systems within the basin [9,11,15,16,17]. Subsequently, deposition of regionally extensive Messinian evaporites during the Late Miocene established one of the most effective regional seals in the Mediterranean, preserving pre-existing structural and stratigraphic traps while mechanically decoupling post-Messinian deformation from the underlying sedimentary succession [5,9,14,18].

The Late Miocene Messinian Salinity Crisis subsequently resulted in the deposition of regionally extensive evaporite successions across much of the Mediterranean Basin [19]. These evaporites constitute an important regional sealing interval and significantly influenced the subsequent evolution of the underlying petroleum systems. In addition to providing an effective seal, the mechanically weak evaporitic succession may have promoted structural decoupling between pre-Messinian strata and younger deformation, thereby influencing the geometry and preservation of underlying traps and reservoir intervals [12,19]. The Messinian succession is consequently a critical component of the regional petroleum-system framework and must be considered when evaluating the preservation potential of hydrocarbon accumulations in the NSOB.

Despite increasing exploration activity across the Eastern Mediterranean, the combined influence of tectonic inheritance, basin inversion, extensional reactivation, and deep-water sedimentation on the structural evolution of the NSOB remains incompletely understood. Previous investigations have primarily addressed individual tectonic events or localized structural elements, whereas basin-scale integration of seismic stratigraphy, structural interpretation, depositional architecture, and tectono-stratigraphic evolution remains limited [5,8,9,11,14]. The seismic transect (R1–R1′) demonstrates this transitional character, showing thick Mesozoic–Cenozoic successions overlying irregular basement topography and laterally variable structural styles (Figure 3).

Accordingly, this study integrates regional seismic interpretation (Figure 3), depth-structure mapping, seismic stratigraphy, and depositional-system analysis to reconstruct the tectono-stratigraphic evolution of the North Sinai Offshore Basin (Figure 4). The objectives are to: (1) characterize the basin-scale structural architecture; (2) evaluate the influence of tectonic inheritance and structural reactivation on basin evolution; (3) investigate the relationship between structural development and deep-water sediment-routing systems; and (4) assess the implications of tectono-stratigraphic evolution for hydrocarbon prospectivity. The resulting framework provides new insights into the evolution of the southern Eastern Mediterranean passive margin and establishes a predictive tectono-stratigraphic model applicable to structurally inherited passive-margin basins worldwide.

2. Geological Setting

2.1. Regional Geological Framework

The Eastern Mediterranean Basin (EMB) constitutes the southeastern sector of the Mediterranean region and represents one of the largest and most tectonically complex sedimentary basins developed along the former northern margin of Gondwana [2,12]. Extending from offshore Egypt to the Levant, the basin records a prolonged tectonic evolution from Mesozoic continental rifting and passive-margin development to Cenozoic plate convergence and basin reorganization, with its present-day architecture largely inherited from extensional structures formed during the opening of the Neo-Tethys Ocean [5,8,13,14].

The southern EMB comprises the Nile Delta, North Sinai Offshore Basin (NSOB), and Levant Basin (Figure 1), which share a common tectonic origin but differ markedly in structural style, subsidence history, depositional architecture, and petroleum-system evolution owing to variations in inherited basement configuration and subsequent tectonic reactivation [7,9,10]. These basins contain sedimentary successions exceeding 12–15 km in thickness and host world-class hydrocarbon accumulations (Figure 2), including the Zohr, Leviathan, Tamar, and Aphrodite gas fields, where hydrocarbons are trapped within carbonate platforms, deep-water turbidite reservoirs, inversion-related anticlines, fault-bounded closures, and stratigraphic traps sealed by Messinian evaporites [11,14].

The tectonic evolution of the EMB can be summarized in four principal stages:

• Permian–Triassic to Early Jurassic Rifting: Established the primary structural framework through the development of basement-rooted normal faults, horsts, grabens, and half-grabens [13].
• Jurassic–Early Cretaceous Thermal Subsidence: Transformed the region into a passive continental margin characterized by widespread carbonate-platform development [8].
• Late Cretaceous–Eocene Inversion: African–Eurasian convergence reactivated inherited structures to form the Syrian Arc inversion system, producing regional folds, inversion anticlines, and structural culminations that became important hydrocarbon traps [2,9].
• Oligocene–Miocene Extension: Opening of the Red Sea and Gulf of Suez rifts preferentially reactivated pre-existing basement faults, promoting renewed subsidence, siliciclastic sedimentation, and deep-water depositional systems across the southern EMB [10,14].

The superposition of these tectonic events produced a structurally inherited passive-margin basin in which basement fabrics have continuously controlled basin subsidence, deformation, sediment routing, reservoir distribution, and hydrocarbon (Figure 2). Regionally extensive Messinian evaporites further enhanced petroleum prospectivity by providing an effective regional seal and preserving pre-existing structural and stratigraphic traps [5,18]. Consequently, the EMB provides an outstanding natural laboratory for investigating the interactions among tectonic inheritance, sedimentary evolution, and petroleum-system development, with direct implications for hydrocarbon exploration throughout the Eastern Mediterranean.

2.2. North Sinai Offshore Basin

The North Sinai Offshore Basin (NSOB) occupies a strategic position along the southern margin of the Eastern Mediterranean Basin (EMB), between the Nile Delta Basin to the west and the Levant Basin to the east (Figure 1). This location places the basin within a transitional tectonic domain between the northern African continental margin and the attenuated continental to oceanic crust of the Levant Basin, where long-term interaction between the African and Eurasian plates has controlled its tectonic evolution [1,3,4,5,14].

The NSOB contains a thick Mesozoic–Cenozoic sedimentary succession overlying an irregular Precambrian crystalline basement that records multiple episodes of tectonic deformation [2,8]. Regional seismic section (R1–R1′) interpretation indicates that sediment thickness progressively increases northward toward the deep-water depocenters of the Eastern Mediterranean (Figure 3 and Figure 4), reflecting the combined effects of inherited basement relief, long-term thermal subsidence, and differential tectonic loading [5,8,10]. This northward deepening represents one of the principal structural characteristics of the basin and has exerted a fundamental control on accommodation space, sediment accumulation, and petroleum-system evolution.

The structural framework of the basin was established during Permian–Triassic to Early Jurassic continental rifting associated with fragmentation of the northern Gondwana margin and opening of the Neo-Tethys Ocean [4,12,19]. Basement-rooted normal faults generated an interconnected system of horsts, grabens, and half-grabens that controlled syn-rift sedimentation and defined the primary basin architecture [2,13]. These deep-seated fault systems remained mechanically active throughout subsequent tectonic evolution and were repeatedly reactivated during compressional and extensional events, thereby controlling basin geometry, structural compartmentalization, and sediment dispersal [3,8,9].

Seismic interpretation (Figure 3 and Figure 4) reveals pronounced lateral variations in structural style resulting from the superposition of multiple tectonic phases. The southern sector is dominated by Syrian Arc inversion-related anticlines and structural culminations, whereas the northern offshore region is characterized by deeply subsiding depocenters controlled by inherited Mesozoic rift faults and subsequent Neogene extensional reactivation [2,8,14].

This structural transition illustrates the persistent influence of basement inheritance on younger deformation and the development of a heterogeneous tectonic framework that governs sediment distribution and hydrocarbon trapping [11].

Depth-structure mapping further demonstrates that the Precambrian basement deepens systematically from approximately 6 km beneath the southern structural highs to more than 15 km within the northern offshore depocenters. This geometry reflects the cumulative effects of Mesozoic lithospheric stretching, Jurassic–Cretaceous thermal subsidence, Syrian Arc inversion, and subsequent Oligocene–Miocene tectonic reactivation associated with Red Sea and Gulf of Suez rifting [1,3,5,8,13]. Consequently, the North Sinai Offshore Basin represents a classic structurally inherited passive-margin depocentre in which successive tectonic events modified and reactivated earlier structural fabrics rather than replacing them, ultimately controlling basin architecture, sedimentary evolution, and hydrocarbon prospectivity across the southern Eastern Mediterranean [9,10,11].

2.3. Permian–Triassic to Early Jurassic Rifting

The earliest stage of basin development was associated with fragmentation of the northern Gondwana margin and initiation of Neo-Tethyan extension during the Permian–Triassic to Early Jurassic [2,12,13]. Regional crustal extension generated basement-rooted normal faults that segmented the continental crust into horsts, grabens, tilted fault blocks, and asymmetric half-grabens, establishing the primary structural framework of the southern Eastern Mediterranean margin. These extensional structures created rift-controlled depocenters and accommodation zones that localized syn-rift sedimentation adjacent to major border faults, thereby defining the initial basin geometry and controlling the distribution of early sedimentary successions.

Seismic interpretation (Figure 3 and Figure 4) of the North Sinai Offshore Basin (NSOB) reveals numerous deep-seated fault systems extending from the Precambrian basement into the Mesozoic succession, demonstrating that inherited basement architecture exerted a first-order control on basin geometry, sediment accommodation, and syn-rift depositional patterns [5,8,9]. Jurassic strata commonly display wedge-shaped growth geometries that thicken toward major normal faults, providing clear evidence of syn-depositional fault activity and progressive subsidence during active rifting [11].

A defining characteristic of the NSOB is the long-term preservation of these basement-rooted extensional structures. Rather than being obliterated by later tectonic events, many rift-related faults remained mechanically weak and were repeatedly reactivated during the Late Cretaceous–Eocene Syrian Arc inversion and subsequent Oligocene–Miocene extension. This structural inheritance controlled later basin compartmentalization, deformation, sediment dispersal, and hydrocarbon trap development, highlighting the fundamental role of inherited basement fabrics in the tectono-stratigraphic evolution of the North Sinai Offshore Basin [2,11,13,14].

2.4. Jurassic–Early Cretaceous Passive-Margin Development

Following the cessation of continental rifting, the North Sinai Offshore Basin evolved into a thermally subsiding passive continental margin during the Jurassic and Early Cretaceous [20]. Progressive lithospheric cooling promoted regional subsidence and widespread marine transgression across the southern Eastern Mediterranean, while tectonic activity diminished, creating favorable conditions for extensive carbonate-platform development [5]. Carbonate deposition was preferentially concentrated over inherited basement highs, where stable substrates, reduced accommodation, and shallow-marine conditions promoted the growth of carbonate platforms and localized reefal complexes [21].

Seismic interpretation (Figure 3 and Figure 4) identifies laterally continuous Jurassic and Cretaceous reflectors draping the underlying basement topography and forming thick carbonate-dominated successions. Several structural highs exhibit seismic geometries consistent with carbonate build-ups developed on uplifted basement blocks, demonstrating the continued influence of inherited structural relief on depositional architecture [9,11,20].

Although tectonic activity was relatively subdued during this stage, inherited basement architecture remained the principal control on water depth, accommodation space, and platform distribution, illustrating the persistent influence of tectonic inheritance on passive-margin sedimentation [5]. Many of these carbonate platforms were subsequently modified during later inversion and extensional tectonic phases, becoming important reservoir intervals and structural highs within the regional petroleum system. Their preservation beneath younger sedimentary successions and Messinian evaporites further enhances their significance as prospective hydrocarbon reservoirs and structural traps across the southern Eastern Mediterranean [9,10,15]

2.5. Late Cretaceous–Eocene Syrian Arc Inversion

A major tectonic reorganization affected the southern Eastern Mediterranean Basin (EMB) during the Late Cretaceous–Eocene as a result of African–Eurasian convergence, leading to the development of the Syrian Arc deformation system that extends from northern Egypt through Sinai into the Levant [22,23]. This regional inversion event fundamentally reshaped the structural architecture of the Eastern Mediterranean and played a pivotal role in the evolution of its petroleum systems by modifying basin geometry, structural compartmentalization, and hydrocarbon trapping [5,9].

Within the North Sinai Offshore Basin (NSOB), compressional stresses preferentially reactivated pre-existing Mesozoic extensional faults, producing basement-rooted inversion anticlines, fault-propagation folds, reverse-reactivated fault systems, uplifted basement blocks, and localized structural culminations [11,23,28]. Seismic interpretation (Figure 3 and Figure 4) demonstrates that many inversion structures are spatially associated with inherited rift faults, confirming that structural inheritance governed the geometry and distribution of compressional deformation and remained a primary control on basin evolution [5,9].

Syrian Arc inversion also redistributed accommodation space throughout the basin. Uplift and erosion of structural highs were accompanied by enhanced subsidence and sediment accumulation within adjacent synclinal depocenters, significantly influencing Paleogene sediment dispersal and depositional architecture [10,15,24]. Many of the inversion structures persisted through subsequent tectonic episodes and were later modified by Neogene extension, preserving their influence on basin compartmentalization and structural evolution.

The resulting inversion anticlines and fault-related structural culminations constitute some of the most prospective hydrocarbon traps within the NSOB. Their preservation beneath younger sedimentary successions highlights the long-term importance of tectonic inheritance in controlling reservoir distribution, hydrocarbon migration, and trap integrity across the southern Eastern Mediterranean [5,9,11]

2.6. Oligocene–Miocene Extensional Reactivation

Renewed tectonic activity affected the North Sinai Offshore Basin (NSOB) during the Oligocene–Miocene in response to the opening of the Red Sea and Gulf of Suez rift systems [25]. Unlike the earlier Neo-Tethyan rifting phase, Neogene extension did not establish a new structural framework but preferentially reactivated inherited basement faults formed during Mesozoic extension and subsequently modified by Syrian Arc inversion [12,13,26,27]. Seismic interpretation (Figure 3 and Figure 4) demonstrates that these basement-rooted fault systems controlled the fault segmentation, renewed basin subsidence, and the development of accommodation space, emphasizing the persistent influence of structural inheritance on basin evolution [5,9,11,15].

Reactivation of inherited normal faults generated renewed subsidence, structural compartmentalization, rejuvenation of earlier depocenters, and localized accommodation space for continued sediment accumulation. Seismic data (Figure 3 and Figure 4) further indicate that many Syrian Arc inversion structures remained preserved beneath Miocene strata, demonstrating that Neogene extension segmented and modified, rather than obliterated, the earlier compressional architecture [5,9,26]. Consequently, inherited tectonic fabrics continued to control fault geometry and subsurface structural configuration throughout the Neogene.

This tectonic phase coincided with increased siliciclastic sediment supply and the widespread development of deep-water depositional systems across the basin [25,28]. Structurally controlled depocenters promoted the accumulation of submarine channels, channel–levee complexes, basin-floor fans, and mass-transport deposits, forming the principal deep-water reservoir systems of the NSOB [9,10,28]. The close relationship between inherited structural fabrics and Miocene sedimentation demonstrates that tectonic inheritance exerted a first-order control on sediment routing, reservoir architecture, and hydrocarbon prospectivity, establishing the structural and stratigraphic framework that underpins modern exploration across the southern Eastern Mediterranean [11,15]

2.7. Messinian Salinity Crisis and Post-Messinian Development

The final major tectono-stratigraphic event affecting the North Sinai Offshore Basin (NSOB) was the Late Miocene Messinian Salinity Crisis, during which restriction of Mediterranean circulation resulted in the deposition of regionally extensive evaporitic sequences across the Eastern Mediterranean Basin [29]. Within the NSOB, the Messinian evaporites form a laterally continuous unit that drapes the pre-existing structural framework, creating one of the most effective regional seals in the basin [1,5,15,30].

Beyond their sealing capacity, the evaporites played a fundamental role in basin evolution by preserving pre-existing structural and stratigraphic traps, mechanically decoupling pre- and post-Messinian successions, modifying the regional stress regime, and enhancing long-term hydrocarbon retention [29,30]. Seismic data (Figure 3 and Figure 4) show that the evaporite succession forms a laterally continuous high-amplitude reflector that serves as a key stratigraphic marker for regional correlation and effectively separates pre- and post-Messinian deformation [5,15]. Post-Messinian sediments commonly onlap the evaporite surface, reflecting its role as a major stratigraphic and mechanical boundary.

The preservation of inversion anticlines, carbonate build-ups, and fault-bounded closures beneath the Messinian seal significantly enhances the hydrocarbon prospectivity of the basin by maintaining trap integrity and supporting efficient hydrocarbon accumulation [1,9,11]. Consequently, the present-day architecture of the NSOB reflects the cumulative effects of Mesozoic rifting, passive-margin subsidence, Syrian Arc inversion, Neogene extensional reactivation, and Messinian evaporite deposition acting upon a long-lived inherited structural framework. Together, these tectono-stratigraphic processes-controlled basin evolution, structural compartmentalization, sediment routing, reservoir distribution, and hydrocarbon accumulation, providing the geological foundation for modern exploration across the southern Eastern Mediterranean [5,10,15].

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Dataset and Seismic Interpretation Workflow

This study utilizes regional two-dimensional (2D) seismic reflection profiles (Figure 3 and Figure 4) and depth-structure maps to investigate the North Sinai Offshore Basin (NSOB) and adjacent sectors of the southern Eastern Mediterranean Basin. An integrated interpretation workflow combining seismic stratigraphy, structural interpretation, depth-structure mapping, and seismic attribute analysis was applied to reconstruct basin architecture, characterize depositional systems, and establish the tectono-stratigraphic evolution from Mesozoic rifting to Neogene sedimentation [5,9,11,16,31].

The interpretation was based on regional seismic profiles (Figure 3 and Figure 4), with particular emphasis on the R–R′ seismic transect, which images the Precambrian basement, sedimentary succession, inversion structures, and later tectonic reactivation. Integration with depth-structure maps enabled delineation of basement geometry, inherited fault systems, and the structural controls on basin evolution [10,15].

A systematic interpretation workflow involving seismic horizon correlation, fault mapping, seismic facies analysis, depth-structure mapping, and tectono-stratigraphic synthesis was employed to reconstruct the successive tectonic phases of the basin and evaluate their influence on sediment routing, depositional architecture, and reservoir development [9,32]. The integrated analysis provided a robust framework for identifying inherited basement structures, tectonic reactivation, and the relationships between structural evolution, stratigraphic architecture, and petroleum-system elements, thereby improving the assessment of hydrocarbon prospectivity across the North Sinai Offshore Basin [5,11,15].

3.2. Seismic Horizon Interpretation

Key chronostratigraphic horizons were interpreted across the North Sinai Offshore Basin using reflector continuity, seismic facies, amplitude characteristics, regional stratigraphic relationships, and structural consistency to establish a basin-wide tectono-stratigraphic framework (Figure 3 and Figure 4). The interpreted horizons include the Top Basement, Top Jurassic, Top Cretaceous, Top Oligocene, Top Early Miocene, and Base Messinian Evaporites, which collectively constrain basin geometry, subsidence history, and structural evolution.

The Top Basement reflector defines the boundary between the sedimentary succession and the Precambrian crystalline basement and serves as the principal reference for evaluating inherited structural architecture and rift-related fault systems [9,11,20]. The Jurassic and Cretaceous horizons were interpreted to reconstruct passive-margin development and long-term subsidence, whereas the Oligocene and Early Miocene horizons were used to evaluate Neogene tectonic reactivation and deep-water depositional evolution [5,10]. The Base Messinian Evaporites forms a laterally continuous, high-amplitude reflector that provides a reliable regional datum for seismic correlation and distinguishes pre- and post-Messinian tectono-stratigraphic evolution [15,33]. Together, these horizons provide the chronostratigraphic framework for interpreting basin architecture, structural evolution, and depositional systems throughout the North Sinai Offshore Basin.

3.3. Structural Interpretation

Structural interpretation focused on identifying normal faults, reverse-reactivated faults, inversion anticlines, basement uplifts, and fault-propagation folds using reflector offsets, termination patterns, growth geometries, and structural repetition observed on regional seismic profiles (Figure 3 and Figure 4) [23,31]. Interpretation was integrated with depth-structure maps to distinguish inherited basement-rooted faults from younger inversion- and extension-related structures, enabling reconstruction of the successive tectonic phases that shaped the North Sinai Offshore Basin [5,9,10,15,26].

The interpreted structures were classified into three principal tectonic groups:

Rift-related structures: Basement-rooted normal faults, horsts, grabens, and half-grabens formed during Permian–Triassic to Early Jurassic extension.

Inversion structures: Syrian Arc anticlines, reverse-reactivated faults, basement uplifts, and fault-propagation folds generated during Late Cretaceous–Eocene compression.

Post-inversion extensional structures: Reactivated normal faults, segmented anticlines, renewed depocenters, and accommodation zones associated with Oligocene–Miocene extension (Figure 3 and Figure 4) [8,9,11,23].

The spatial relationships among these structural groups demonstrate repeated reactivation of inherited basement faults rather than the development of entirely new structural frameworks. This pattern of structural inheritance controlled the basin compartmentalization, sediment accommodation, depositional evolution, and hydrocarbon trapping, providing the structural framework for interpreting the tectonic evolution and petroleum prospectivity of the North Sinai Offshore Basin [5,15].

3.4. Depth-Structure Mapping

Depth-structure maps were generated for each interpreted horizon to evaluate spatial variations in basin geometry and structural evolution through time [34,35]. The mapping procedure enabled reconstruction of basin-scale geometry, identification of structural highs and lows, depocenter migration, inversion-related uplift, and the evolution of accommodation space [34,35]. The resulting maps provide a temporal framework for evaluating tectonic controls on sediment accumulation, depositional architecture, and structural inheritance throughout the North Sinai Offshore Basin [9,25].

Particular emphasis was placed on the Top Basement, Top Jurassic, Top Cretaceous, Oligocene, Early Miocene, and Base Messinian surfaces. Comparison among these surfaces enabled the progressive evolution of structural highs, depocenters, fault systems, and inversion-related culminations to be evaluated. This approach allowed the effects of successive tectonic phases to be distinguished and linked to changes in accommodation and sediment distribution.

3.5. Seismic Attribute Analysis

Seismic attribute analysis was performed to enhance the visualization of structural discontinuities and depositional geomorphology beyond that achievable with conventional seismic amplitude data [16,36,37,38]. Variance attribute for a sample 3D seismic data (Figure 5) was integrated with regional seismic interpretation to improve the delineation of fault systems, structural lineaments, channel margins, and depositional boundaries, thereby facilitating more accurate mapping of basin-scale structural and stratigraphic features [5,9,10].

Attribute analysis proved particularly effective for identifying submarine channels, channel–levee complexes, distributary networks, basin-floor fans, gravity-flow deposits, and mass-transport complexes. Integration of these attributes with structural interpretation enabled detailed reconstruction of sediment-routing systems and their spatial relationship with inherited fault-controlled depocenters, providing important constraints on reservoir distribution and depositional architecture within the North Sinai Offshore Basin [11,15,39].

In addition, seismic attributes enhanced the recognition of subtle structural discontinuities associated with basement reactivation, Syrian Arc inversion, and Neogene extensional faulting. The combined interpretation of attribute and seismic reflection data therefore provided a robust framework for evaluating tectono-stratigraphic evolution, structural compartmentalization, and hydrocarbon prospectivity across the North Sinai Offshore Basin [5,9,40,41].

4. Results

4.1. Basin Architecture and Structural Framework

Regional seismic interpretation reveals that the North Sinai Offshore Basin is characterized by progressive northward deepening and pronounced structural segmentation resulting from the superposition of multiple tectonic phases on an inherited basement framework. Thick Mesozoic–Cenozoic sedimentary successions overlie an irregular Precambrian basement dissected by major basement-rooted faults, defining the fundamental basin architecture (Figure 3 and Figure 4).

The basin reaches its greatest depth in the northern offshore sector, where cumulative subsidence exceeds 15 km, whereas the southern margin is characterized by relatively shallow basement highs and inversion-related structural culminations. Regional seismic profiles (Figure 3 and Figure 4) demonstrate that inherited rift-related faults remain clearly identifiable beneath younger deformation, indicating repeated tectonic reactivation and confirming that basement architecture exerted a primary control on basin geometry, structural compartmentalization, and the evolution of subsequent tectonic styles.

4.2. Top Basement Structure

The Top Basement depth-structure map (Figure 6) reveals a systematic northward increase in basement depth, with prominent basement highs in the southern and central sectors grading into deep offshore depocenters in the northern basin. This geometry reflects the primary structural framework established during Permian–Triassic to Early Jurassic rifting and the subsequent evolution of the basin.

The basement highs are interpreted as uplifted fault blocks preserved from the initial extensional phase and subsequently modified by tectonic reactivation. Their long-term persistence demonstrates the fundamental role of inherited basement architecture in controlling basin geometry, structural evolution, and sediment accommodation. Several of these basement highs, including the Zohr, Nour, and Thuraya structural highs (Figure 6), also coincide with favorable sites for Jurassic–Cretaceous carbonate-platform development, indicating that inherited structural relief exerted a significant control on reservoir distribution and the evolution of the regional petroleum system.

4.3. Jurassic Structural Configuration

The Top Jurassic depth-structure map (Figure 7) exhibits a basin geometry that closely follows the underlying basement architecture, characterized by a regional northward dip and localized structural culminations developed over inherited basement highs. This configuration indicates that tectonic inheritance remained the primary control on basin morphology during the Jurassic passive-margin stage.

Differential subsidence across basement fault blocks (Figure 7) generated spatial variations in accommodation space, influencing Jurassic sediment thickness, depositional architecture, and carbonate-platform distribution. Carbonate deposition was preferentially concentrated over structurally elevated areas where reduced accommodation and stable shallow-marine conditions favored platform development, highlighting the continued influence of inherited structural relief on passive-margin sedimentation and reservoir distribution.

4.4. Cretaceous Structural Development

The Top Cretaceous depth-structure map (Figure 8) records progressive modification of the basin architecture while preserving the regional northward-dipping geometry inherited from earlier tectonic phases. Prominent structural highs, folds, and localized culminations developed across the basin, reflecting the increasing influence of Late Cretaceous Syrian Arc inversion.

These structures are preferentially aligned with inherited basement fault trends, demonstrating that pre-existing extensional fabrics controlled the geometry and distribution of inversion-related deformation. The resulting structural configuration highlights the continued importance of tectonic inheritance in governing basin evolution, structural compartmentalization, and the development of prospective hydrocarbon traps.

4.5. Oligocene and Early Miocene Structural Evolution

The Oligocene and Early Miocene depth-structure maps record renewed tectonic reorganization associated with Neogene extensional reactivation while preserving the principal inversion structures established during the Syrian Arc event. Although many inversion anticlines remained intact, they exhibit segmentation and localized structural modification resulting from renewed normal-fault activity.

Reactivation of inherited basement-rooted faults generated additional accommodation space, localized subsidence, and renewed depocenter development, demonstrating that Neogene extension modified rather than replaced the pre-existing structural framework. Consequently, the basin evolved into a structurally heterogeneous system in which extensional and compressional elements coexist, highlighting the persistent influence of tectonic inheritance on basin architecture and subsequent sedimentary evolution.

The Top Oligocene depth-structure map (Figure 9) preserves the regional northward-dipping basin geometry while recording renewed extensional deformation superimposed on the inherited structural framework. The basin architecture remained strongly controlled by pre-existing basement-rooted fault systems, demonstrating that Oligocene extension primarily reactivated earlier rift-related and inversion-related structures rather than generating a new structural fabric.

The Nour and Thuraya structural highs remained prominent positive features throughout this stage, whereas the Zohr paleo-high is characterized by an absence of the Oligocene succession, indicating erosion or non-deposition associated with persistent structural uplift. Continued differential subsidence across inherited fault blocks controlled the accommodation-space development and sediment distribution, preserving the structural compartmentalization established during earlier tectonic phases. These observations demonstrate that tectonic inheritance remained the dominant control on basin architecture during the early stages of Red Sea–Gulf of Suez-related extension.

The Top Early Miocene depth-structure map (Figure 10) preserves the regional northward-dipping basin geometry while recording renewed extensional reactivation associated with the early stages of Red Sea–Gulf of Suez rifting. Extension was accommodated primarily through the reactivation of inherited basement-rooted fault systems, resulting in block tilting, renewed accommodation space, and localized depocenter development without fundamentally altering the inherited structural framework.

The Nour and Thuraya structural highs remained positive structural elements throughout the Early Miocene, whereas the Zohr paleo-high continued to exhibit an absent or eroded Miocene succession, reflecting persistent structural uplift and limited accommodation. The preservation of inversion-related anticlines beneath the Miocene succession indicates that extensional deformation segmented and reactivated the pre-existing Syrian Arc structures rather than obliterating them. Consequently, the Early Miocene structural architecture represents the superposition of Neogene extensional deformation on an inherited Mesozoic–Cenozoic structural framework, maintaining the strong influence of tectonic inheritance on basin evolution and structural compartmentalization.

4.6. Base Messinian Configuration

The Base Messinian depth-structure map (Figure 11) represents the final pre-evaporite structural configuration of the North Sinai Offshore Basin, integrating the cumulative effects of Mesozoic rifting, Late Cretaceous Syrian Arc inversion, and Neogene extensional reactivation. The basin retains its regional northward-dipping geometry, while inherited basement-rooted fault systems continue to control structural relief and basin compartmentalization.

The Nour and Thuraya structural highs remained persistent positive structural elements immediately before Messinian evaporite deposition, whereas the Zohr paleo-high continued to exhibit an absent or eroded pre-Messinian succession, reflecting prolonged structural uplift and reduced accommodation. Differential subsidence along reactivated fault systems generated localized depocenters and enhanced structural segmentation while preserving the principal inversion-related structural highs established during earlier tectonic phases.

The Base Messinian surface therefore records the final tectono-stratigraphic architecture of the basin prior to deposition of the Messinian evaporites. The distribution of structural highs and depocenters demonstrates that inherited tectonic elements continued to govern accommodation-space development, sediment routing, and basin morphology, establishing the structural framework upon which the Messinian evaporites were deposited and the regional seal was subsequently developed.

4.7. Seismic Facies and Depositional Architecture

Seismic facies interpretation indicates a progressive transition from Jurassic–Cretaceous carbonate-dominated passive-margin deposits to Oligocene–Miocene siliciclastic deep-water systems. The Jurassic and Cretaceous successions are characterized by laterally continuous, high-amplitude reflectors interpreted as carbonate-platform and shallow-marine shelf deposits, whereas younger intervals display more heterogeneous seismic geometries associated with deep-water sedimentation.

The Oligocene–Miocene succession is dominated by submarine channels, channel–levee complexes, basin-floor fans, gravity-flow deposits, and mass-transport complexes that are preferentially developed within structurally controlled accommodation zones. These depositional systems reflect the combined influence of tectonic reactivation and increased siliciclastic sediment supply, highlighting the role of inherited basin architecture in controlling sediment routing and depositional patterns. Collectively, these deep-water systems constitute the principal reservoir targets within the North Sinai Offshore Basin and provide important insights into basin evolution and hydrocarbon prospectivity.

4.8.1. Submarine Channel Systems

Variance attribute map (Figure 12), reveals an extensive network of submarine-channel systems within the Oligocene–Miocene succession, characterized by sinuous channel geometries, lateral migration, avulsion features, and interconnected channel belts. The channels are preferentially developed within structurally controlled lows bounded by inherited fault systems, indicating that tectonic inheritance played a fundamental role in governing sediment routing and channel evolution.

The close association between channel systems and fault-controlled depocenters demonstrates that basement architecture strongly influenced accommodation space and depositional patterns during deep-water sedimentation. These channelized deposits represent the principal reservoir fairways within the North Sinai Offshore Basin because of their favorable sand distribution, lateral continuity, and reservoir connectivity, making them key targets for hydrocarbon exploration.

4.8.2. Submarine Channel Systems

Seismic attribute analysis identifies basin-floor fan complexes developed within the deepest fault-controlled depocenters, where they represent the terminal sinks of major sediment-routing systems. These fan complexes are closely associated with gravity-flow deposits and mass-transport complexes, reflecting repeated episodes of slope instability and sediment remobilization during Oligocene–Miocene deep-water sedimentation. Their distribution demonstrates the strong influence of inherited basin architecture on accommodation development, sediment dispersal, and depositional patterns

The depositional model and paleogeographic reconstruction (Figure 13) further illustrate the tectonic control exerted by inherited structural elements on sediment routing within the North Sinai Offshore Basin. Sediment transport was directed from the structurally elevated southern margin toward the progressively subsiding northern offshore basin, following the regional northward basin gradient established during earlier rifting and maintained through subsequent tectonic reactivation. The Hinge Zone defines the transition from the stable southern shelf to the basin-ward slope, while the Bardawil Trend acted as a major structural corridor controlling slope geometry, accommodation development, and sediment-routing pathways. Farther east, the Pelusium Zone served as an important structural boundary that compartmentalized depositional systems and influenced sediment distribution.

Shallow- to open-marine environments grade northward into slope-basin settings and ultimately into deep-marine basin-floor fan systems, where turbidity currents and associated gravity flows accumulated within fault-controlled depocenters. This depositional framework demonstrates the close coupling between tectonic evolution, inherited structural relief, accommodation-space development, sediment routing, and reservoir distribution, highlighting the significance of these deep-water systems as key exploration targets within the North Sinai Offshore Basin.

5. Discussion

5.1. Tectonic Inheritance and Structural Superposition

The North Sinai Offshore Basin (NSOB) is a structurally inherited sedimentary basin in which successive tectonic events modified and reactivated, rather than replaced, the original Mesozoic structural framework. Seismic interpretation demonstrates that basement-rooted normal faults formed during Permian–Triassic to Early Jurassic Neo-Tethyan rifting remained the primary controls on basin evolution, governing accommodation development during passive-margin subsidence, localizing Syrian Arc inversion, and acting as preferential zones for Oligocene–Miocene extensional reactivation. As a result, the present-day basin architecture reflects the cumulative effects of structural superposition rather than discrete tectonic replacement.

The persistence of inherited basement structures throughout successive tectonic phases demonstrates their fundamental role in controlling basin geometry, depocenter development, accommodation space, inversion anticlines, carbonate-platform distribution, and deep-water sediment-routing systems. The close spatial association between these structural and depositional elements indicates that repeated fault reactivation reinforced the influence of earlier tectonic fabrics, producing an increasingly complex structural framework through geological time.

Overall, the results demonstrate that long-term tectonic inheritance was the principal factor governing the structural and depositional evolution of NSOB. The interaction between inherited basement architecture and repeated tectonic reactivation controlled the sediment distribution, reservoir development, structural trapping, and hydrocarbon migration, emphasizing the importance of integrating structural inheritance into basin reconstruction and hydrocarbon exploration within passive-margin basins.

5.2. Evolution of Rift Architecture and Passive-Margin Development

The structural framework of the North Sinai Offshore Basin was established during Permian–Triassic to Early Jurassic rifting associated with the fragmentation of northern Gondwana and opening of the Neo-Tethys Ocean. Basement-involved normal faults generated horsts, grabens, and half-grabens that controlled syn-rift accommodation and sediment accumulation. Seismic profiles reveal wedge-shaped Jurassic successions thickening toward major faults, confirming active syn-depositional faulting and the tectonic origin of basin accommodation.

Following the cessation of rifting, regional thermal subsidence transformed the southern Eastern Mediterranean into a passive continental margin. Differential subsidence across inherited fault blocks controlled the accommodation space and sediment distribution, while structurally elevated basement highs provided stable, shallow-marine settings for Jurassic–Early Cretaceous carbonate-platform development. These carbonate systems subsequently evolved into important hydrocarbon reservoirs, demonstrating the long-term influence of inherited basement architecture on both depositional evolution and petroleum prospectivity. The continued development of carbonate platforms above structural highs indicates that tectonic inheritance remained the dominant control on basin evolution even during periods of relative tectonic stability.

5.3. Syrian Arc Inversion and Basin Reorganization

The Late Cretaceous–Eocene Syrian Arc inversion represented a major phase of tectonic reorganization that fundamentally modified the structural framework of the North Sinai Offshore Basin. Seismic interpretation indicates that compressional deformation preferentially reactivated pre-existing rift-related normal faults, producing inversion anticlines, fault-propagation folds, basement uplifts, and reverse-reactivated fault systems. The geometry and distribution of these structures demonstrate that inherited extensional faults controlled the style and magnitude of inversion, with areas of greater rift displacement exhibiting more pronounced structural uplift.

Syrian Arc inversion significantly reorganized basin physiography by uplifting structural highs and enhancing sediment accumulation within adjacent synclinal depocenters. This redistribution of accommodation space modified Paleogene sediment-routing pathways and influenced the spatial distribution of depositional systems. The preservation of inversion structures beneath younger sedimentary successions indicates their continued importance in controlling present-day basin architecture. These inversion-related anticlines remain key structural traps, highlighting the critical role of Syrian Arc deformation in shaping petroleum-system evolution and hydrocarbon prospectivity within the North Sinai Offshore Basin.

5.4. Oligocene–Miocene Reactivation and Basin Rejuvenation

The onset of Red Sea and Gulf of Suez rifting during the Oligocene–Miocene introduced a renewed extensional regime that reactivated inherited basement-rooted faults rather than generating a new structural framework. Seismic interpretation demonstrates that Neogene deformation preferentially exploited faults established during Mesozoic rifting and subsequently modified by Syrian Arc inversion, confirming the persistent influence of tectonic inheritance on basin evolution.

Fault reactivation resulted in renewed basin subsidence, segmentation of inversion anticlines, development of additional accommodation space, rejuvenation of depocenters, and increased structural compartmentalization. The preservation of inversion structures beneath Miocene successions indicates that extensional deformation modified rather than eliminated earlier compressional features, producing a structurally complex basin characterized by the superposition of extensional and compressional elements.

This tectonic rejuvenation had important implications for petroleum-system evolution by controlling sediment accommodation, reservoir distribution, structural trapping, migration pathways, and reservoir connectivity. The resulting structural complexity enhanced hydrocarbon prospectivity by generating multiple trap styles within a unified tectonic framework.

5.5. Structural Controls on Sediment Routing

A key finding of this study is the strong relationship between inherited structural fabrics and sediment-routing systems during the Oligocene–Miocene. Seismic attribute analysis demonstrates that submarine channels, basin-floor fans, and gravity-flow deposits are preferentially developed within fault-controlled depocenters, indicating that inherited tectonic architecture exerted a primary control on sediment dispersal and accommodation development.

Structural highs acted as barriers that influenced channel orientation, whereas fault-controlled lows served as preferential sediment-routing corridors connecting shelf-margin source areas with deep-water depocenters. Consequently, basin-floor fan complexes accumulated within the deepest structural lows, forming the terminal sinks of regionally organized sediment-routing systems. These observations demonstrate that structural inheritance controlled the distribution of deep-water depositional systems and played a fundamental role in reservoir development, highlighting the close coupling between tectonic evolution, sediment routing, and hydrocarbon prospectivity in the North Sinai Offshore Basin.

5.6. Carbonate Build-Ups and Reservoir Development

The Jurassic–Cretaceous carbonate systems represent a significant expression of structural inheritance within the North Sinai Offshore Basin. Seismic interpretation indicates that carbonate-platform development was concentrated over inherited basement highs, where stable substrates and shallow-marine conditions favored carbonate accumulation. These structurally controlled carbonate build-ups establish a direct link between early rift architecture and subsequent reservoir development.

Many of the interpreted carbonate platforms occupy structural settings comparable to major Eastern Mediterranean carbonate plays, highlighting their exploration significance. Subsequent tectonic inversion and fault reactivation further enhanced their petroleum potential by generating structural closure, fracture networks, and favorable migration pathways, while the overlying Messinian evaporites provided an effective regional seal. Consequently, the spatial coincidence of carbonate reservoirs, structural traps, and sealing units demonstrates that tectonic inheritance controlled multiple elements of the petroleum system, reinforcing the importance of inherited basement architecture in governing hydrocarbon prospectivity within the North Sinai Offshore Basin.

5.7. Messinian Evaporites and Trap Preservation

The Messinian Salinity Crisis represents the final major tectono-stratigraphic event influencing the North Sinai Offshore Basin and plays a fundamental role in hydrocarbon preservation. Regional evaporite deposition established a thick, laterally continuous seal that blankets the inherited structural framework and effectively separates pre- and post-Messinian successions. This evaporite sequence not only provides an excellent regional seal but also acts as a mechanical detachment horizon, reducing deformation of older structural features and enhancing long-term trap stability.

The preservation of inversion anticlines, carbonate build-ups, and fault-bounded closures beneath the Messinian evaporites demonstrates the critical role of salt deposition in maintaining structural integrity and hydrocarbon retention. By improving seal effectiveness, isolating hydrocarbon accumulations, and preserving pre-existing structural traps, the Messinian evaporites significantly enhanced the petroleum prospectivity of the basin. These findings highlight the combined influence of inherited structural architecture and regional evaporite sealing in controlling hydrocarbon accumulation and preservation within the North Sinai Offshore Basin.

6. Conclusions

This study reconstructs the tectono-stratigraphic evolution of the North Sinai Offshore Basin (NSOB) through integration of regional seismic interpretation (Figure 3 and Figure 4), depth-structure mapping, seismic facies analysis, and attribute-based depositional-system reconstruction. The results demonstrate that the basin represents a tectonically inherited passive-margin system whose present-day architecture reflects the cumulative effects of Mesozoic rifting, passive-margin subsidence, Syrian Arc inversion, Neogene extensional reactivation, and Messinian evaporite deposition.

Several major conclusions can be drawn from the analysis:

• Long-Term Structural Inheritance Controlled Basin Evolution: The primary structural framework of the NSOB was established during Permian–Triassic to Early Jurassic extension associated with fragmentation of the northern Gondwana margin and opening of the Neo-Tethys Ocean. Basement-involved normal faults generated a network of horsts, grabens, and half-grabens that remained active throughout subsequent geological history. These inherited structures exerted first-order control on accommodation development, sediment thickness distribution, and basin geometry.
• Passive-Margin Development Was Controlled by Basement Architecture: Following rifting, regional thermal subsidence promoted passive-margin conditions and widespread carbonate-platform development. Carbonate growth preferentially occurred above inherited basement highs where reduced accommodation and stable substrate conditions favored shallow-marine deposition. The resulting carbonate build-ups later became important structural and stratigraphic components of the petroleum system.
• Syrian Arc Inversion Fundamentally Reorganized Basin Architecture: Late Cretaceous–Eocene African–Eurasian convergence reactivated pre-existing extensional structures and generated inversion anticlines, fault-propagation folds, and basement uplifts. The inversion process redistributed accommodation space, modified sediment-routing pathways, and created many of the structural traps preserved within the basin today.
• Oligocene–Miocene Extension Reactivated Inherited Structures: Neogene extension associated with Red Sea and Gulf of Suez rifting preferentially exploited pre-existing tectonic fabrics rather than generating an entirely new structural framework. Reactivation resulted in renewed subsidence, segmentation of inversion anticlines, development of additional accommodation space, and increased structural compartmentalization.
• Deep-Water Depositional Systems Were Controlled by Structural Inheritance: Seismic attribute analysis reveals extensive submarine channels, channel–levee complexes, basin-floor fans, distributary systems, gravity-flow deposits, and mass-transport complexes concentrated within structurally controlled depocenters. The spatial distribution of these systems demonstrates that inherited tectonic elements remained the dominant control on sediment routing and deep-water depositional architecture throughout Miocene basin evolution.
• Messinian Evaporites Enhanced Trap Preservation: The Messinian Salinity Crisis introduced a regionally extensive evaporite succession that draped the inherited structural framework and established an effective basin-wide sealing unit. The evaporites enhanced trap preservation promoted mechanical decoupling between pre- and post-Messinian strata, and significantly increased the likelihood of long-term hydrocarbon retention.
• Multiple Exploration Play Types Are Present: The integrated tectono-stratigraphic framework identifies several promising explorations plays, including inversion anticlines, carbonate build-ups developed above inherited basement highs, fault-bounded structural closures, submarine-channel reservoirs, basin-floor fan systems, and combined structural–stratigraphic traps preserved beneath the Messinian seal.
• The NSOB Represents an Important Analog for Structurally Inherited Passive-Margin Basins: The evolutionary model proposed in this study demonstrates how tectonic inheritance can govern basin architecture, sediment dispersal, reservoir distribution, and petroleum-system development across multiple geological timescales. The results provide a predictive framework applicable to other polyphase passive-margin basins throughout the Eastern Mediterranean and comparable tectonic provinces worldwide.
• The NSOB Represents an Important Analog for Structurally Inherited Passive-Margin Basins: The evolutionary model proposed in this study demonstrates how tectonic inheritance can govern basin architecture, sediment dispersal, reservoir distribution, and petroleum-system development across multiple geological timescales. The results provide a predictive framework applicable to other polyphase passive-margin basins throughout the Eastern Mediterranean and comparable tectonic provinces worldwide.

Table 1 and Table 2 list of the summary of the tectono-stratigraphic evolution, depositional response, and hydrocarbon significance of the NSOB.

7. Exploration Implications

The integrated tectono-stratigraphic analysis presented in this study highlights the significant exploration potential of the North Sinai Offshore Basin and emphasizes the importance of structural inheritance in controlling reservoir distribution and hydrocarbon trapping.

The basin contains a diverse range of exploration opportunities resulting from the superposition of multiple tectonic and depositional processes. Structural closure, reservoir development, migration pathways, and effective sealing mechanisms occur together within several distinct play fairways:

• Inversion Anticline Plays: Syrian Arc inversion anticlines represent the most obvious structural targets within the basin. These structures provide large closures, significant vertical relief, and favorable relationships with potential source kitchens and migration pathways. Their preservation beneath Messinian evaporites further enhances exploration attractiveness.
• Carbonate Build-Up Plays: Jurassic and Cretaceous carbonate build-ups developed above inherited basement highs represent potential analogs to major Eastern Mediterranean carbonate discoveries. Structural uplift, fracture enhancement, and evaporite sealing create favorable conditions for hydrocarbon accumulation within these systems.
• Reactivated Fault-Bounded Closures: Many inherited rift structures experienced multiple episodes of reactivation, producing fault-assisted trapping geometries and compartmentalized reservoir systems. Such structures may contain hydrocarbons within both hanging-wall and footwall reservoir intervals.
• Deep-Water Channel Reservoirs: Oligocene–Miocene submarine-channel complexes constitute some of the most attractive stratigraphic targets within the basin. Their distribution within structurally controlled depocenters suggests predictable reservoir fairways that can be identified through advanced seismic attribute analysis.
• Basin-Floor Fan Systems: Deep-water fan complexes located within terminal depocenters may contain laterally extensive reservoir bodies characterized by favorable porosity and permeability development. Their occurrence beneath the Messinian seal enhances their exploration significance.
• Combination Traps: The most prospective exploration opportunities are likely to occur where structural closure, reservoir development, and evaporite sealing coincide. Such combination traps include inverted carbonate platforms, channelized sand bodies draped across structural highs, and fault-controlled stratigraphic pinch-outs.

Overall, successful exploration within the basin requires integration of structural interpretation, seismic stratigraphy, seismic attribute analysis, and tectono-stratigraphic reconstruction. The exploration framework proposed in this study provides a practical methodology for reducing exploration uncertainty and improving reservoir prediction within tectonically inherited passive-margin basins.