An Assessment of Urban Development and Control Mechanisms in Selected Nigerian Cities

: The paper makes a critical assessment of urban development in Nigeria against the backdrop of a rapidly changing population and growth rate. The Authors interrogated the effects of development control- mechanisms through the lenses of identified social anomalies in three selected pilot cities of Nigeria (Kaduna, Abuja FCT, and Lagos). Thematic areas examined include, the state of critical infrastructure, population dynamics, urban sprawl, city polarization, transportation, waste management systems, security/crime and economics. The Authors identified structural transformation of three Nigerian cities with focus on the causes and attendant consequences on urban development. The study found that urban growth has over-stretched the state of critical infrastructure in the cities and the mechanisms of development control seem ineffective in stemming unregulated growth, compromises and unplanned ‘development’. The paper noted that the impact of these developments has overstretched the state of critical infrastructure with far-reaching consequences. The authors conclude with some recommendations for strategic planning and sustainable development strategies aimed at mitigating the problems of urban development in Nigeria.

for a discourse that is representative of Nigeria as well as present a balanced socio-economic platform on which urban development could be viewed.

Urbanization and Urban Development in Nigeria
The proportion of people living in urban areas in Nigeria has increased steadily since independence. Qurix (2017) notes that by 1970, Nigeria had possibly one of the fastest urbanization growth rates in the world. In 1986, the growth rate was estimated to be about 6%. It rose to 40% in 2010 (Qurix 2017   When we turn to the south, Lagos represents a clear example of the urbanization process in Nigeria. By 1960, Lagos had a population of 400,000 and grew to over fourteen (14) million in 2020 (NBS, 2015;Populationstat.com, 2020). When the Lagos Central Planning Scheme was drawn in 1957, the area called Marina was a slum and the scheme anticipated its clearance and re-development; existing roads were to be widened in anticipation of the rising population. The plan set out guidelines for building heights, pedestrian passengers and construction of massive infrastructure (roads, bridges and housing). Between 1962 and 1972 massive building construction of both commercial and residential structures increased but the laying of satisfactory piped sewage disposal system was lacking, and this remained a serious challenge even to the eighties and early nineties. As a coastal city, Lagos derived immense prosperity from external trade in goods, cars and oil (Duthiers and Kermeliotis, 2012; Price and Vojinovi, 2011).
As Nigeria's Federal Capital city until 1991, Lagos accommodated large population of civil servants as well as trade merchants from Eastern Nigeria. As economic prosperity of Nigeria reached its height in the seventies, the population of Lagos exploded, and infrastructure became overstretched. One way to deal with this was to move the Federal Capital to Abuja; of course, this only partially helped, as Lagos continued to function as the economic nerve center of Nigeria. Besides, population overflow from Lagos to other neighboring states was rather slow until recently, perhaps in the last twenty (20) years. By current realities, Lagos might have provided a fair template worthy of emulation at least in the last ten (10) years or more. The quality of life has also remained reasonable as economic activities remained high. Even crime rate appears to be dropping according to a recent declaration by the Inspector General of Police. It is therefore fair to say that the urbanization process in Lagos has produced a definite urban development pattern in the last ten (10) years (Dano et al., 2020;Aluko, 2010). Figure 2 shows an aerial view of Ikeja metropolis, a modernized and developed part of Lagos. One of the factors that have been identified to be responsible for movement to the cities is the apparent lack of conscious effort by governments to develop the rural areas and provide basic amenities. This forces the rural dwellers to migrate (Ayedun, 2011). At best, the rate of growth in rural areas is so slow that it exposes the inhabitants to various forms of vulnerabilities including insecurity owing to uncontrolled development.
Turner and coworkers (Turner II et al., 1990) among others, believe that urbanization is a major driving force of urban growth and environmental change. They showed that the earth is transformed by human action and maintains that urbanization -both as a social phenomenon and a physical transformation of landscape is one of the most powerful, irreversible and visible anthropogenic force on earth and the major force behind urban growth in developing world. Development strategists from all shades of the political spectrum agree in this respect, although they differ considerably in their assessment of the consequential benefits of such change. Figure depicts some poor sights in Kaduna, a development deficit and an evidence of unorganized urbanization and migration.
Urbanization and more particularly, the urbanization process, thus refers much more than simple population growth and involves an analysis of the related economic, social and political transformations. That is why Drakakis (1987), thinks that the dimension of urban population growth only forms an essential background to the distribution and extent of the urbanization process.    In Abuja a ministerial directive to demolish buildings and open spaces or drainages was carried out in 2008. In Kaduna, cases of farmlands which are converted to lay-outs for building purpose are prevalent in places such as Rigasa, Kinkinau and Unguwar Muazu. Usually, the quality of houses built on such lands is inferior and less than the ideal. The make-shift market in Apo was demolished to correct planning infractions. Figure 4 gives pictorial view of these correctional measures. This attests to the effectiveness of development control mechanism and the strong political will to translate plans into actions. It remains to be seen though what measures are put in place in the immediate term to provide succor to affected residents or users of demolished areas. It would seem a pro-poor approach and one that acts with a human face, is still far from sight (Nekabari and Aguiyi, 2012; Oluwafemi et al., 2018).

Blighted Areas
Another glaring phenomenon of the urban center is the blighted areas. There is hardly any conscious regulation for the redevelopment of blighted areas such that even along main streets one could notice several sights of blight phenomena. Ahmadu Bello Way Kaduna has several blighted areas which are relic of colonial buildings; Lagos Island has many. In the case of Lagos, it appears Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 24 November 2020 doi:10.20944/preprints202011.0600.v1 safer to demolish some of the multi-storey buildings with weak structures, finishes and dysfunctional roofs at the interface between the mainland and Island areas when visualized along Carter Bridge.
The phenomenon of juxtaposing informal blighted structures side-by-side with modern planned structures is a practice that must be outrightly banned (Jelili et al., 2020). Moreover, blighted areas as seen in Kaduna ( Figure 5) should be marked for urban renewal by the appropriate authorities (Wendell, 2003). From aerial view, some areas of the city look a bit planned ( Figure 6), but the street to street view tells a different story.

Environmental Quality and Waste Management System
Environmental cleanliness is a major challenge in our cities. It is defined by indiscriminate dumping of waste ( Figure 7), even on highways, pockets of stagnant water, dirty streets, air pollution occasioned by smoke from generators, faulty cars and motorcycles. Added to this is the existence of several blighted areas which require upgrading or redevelopment. There is hardly any framework put in place to upgrade or modify the architecture of buildings to appropriate levels. Where there is a concentration of the urban poor, the quality of the environment is compromised almost with impunity and the regulatory agencies seem helpless to control this (Oluwafemi et al., 2018). management and disposal of waste, although much is still desired, compared to Kaduna which is lagging behind in this respect.

Emerging Identity Fault Lines in the Cities and the Polarization Syndrome.
A critical look at our cities, would suggest the clear manifestation of polarization syndrome along identity lines (Osaghae and Suberu, 2005). Understandably, it would seem that the unresolved issues around our national questions seem to find expression in some of our cities especially Kaduna, among other cities (Olawale, 2020). The mosaic of settlement arrangements within the urban settings is antithetical to national integration. As alluded to, such polarization syndrome is in varying degree among the cities under study, its manifestation seems to be linked to each city's immediate past experiences as it relates to stability and peace. Also important as a causal factor to polarization syndrome is the degree of integrated-ness or cosmopolitan outlook of the city.  (Olawale, 2020;Ozo, 2009). Sadly, the healing process got into a relapse following the 2011 post-election violence that once again occasioned further polarization and tended to tinker with or reverse the confidence-building drive between groups in the city and the state at large.

Theoretical Framework
The work lends itself to three classical and two contemporary theories which for the purpose of categorization in our discourse, may be referred to, as classical and contemporary/modern theories.
These are the central place theory, the concentric core model, and the sector or wedge model propounded by Christaller (1933Christaller ( , 1966, Burgess (1925)  Such does not exist in reality, as it falls short of addressing the issues at stake in the cities under study.
The concept of the CBD however provides some direction in appreciating the underlying determinant of cities in classical and contemporary times. This was further retained in the concentric core of Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 24 November 2020 doi:10.20944/preprints202011.0600.v1 Burgess (1925), and the sector or wedge model of Hoyt (1939), both of which retained the core idea of the CBD as acknowledged by Chrystaller (1966).
The principle of centrality is almost universally valid while the ideas of sector or concentric core and the corresponding expansions that radiates from them lack the element of universality.
Particularly when we consider drivers such as topographies, history, land tenure system, land availability, culture, governmental actions and policies, including infrastructural adequacy etc.
Taking the study cities (Kaduna, Lagos and Abuja) as references, settlement growth followed traditional patterns in the early years and later the colonial 'grid pattern' and Islamic patterns in the North. It did not really follow those forms propounded by Christaller (1966), Burgess (1925) or Hoyt (1939) as the cases may be. This was before 1991 when the FCT was transferred from Lagos to Abuja.
It is worthy of note however, that although these models lack universal applicability, the study found some relevance in their core principles, processes and ideas. Some of which find expression in the outlook of the three cities under study. Such processes as invasion and succession process (where other land users are overtaken by others that were 'stronger') in land use, the idea of the CBD which is a common thread that runs through the three theories and indeed the principle of market, transportation network and administrative functions of the city remains a constant. This is very applicable in the study area where land uses are constantly experiencing daily conversions (especially where rural land use is overtaken by new urban developments). This is a frequent occurrence in the Abuja FCT and Lagos, just as market and transportation networks are determinants in urban patterns and outlooks.

Materials and Methods
The study relied on literature review, pictorial and graphic data accessed via landsat imageries, drone footages and aerial photographs and participant observations during field surveys of existing situation. These were complimented by existing base maps, development plans/master plans of the study areas, review reports of agencies saddled with development control and their associated instruments that are in use by the various agencies. Also, a key informant interview (KII) of some selected professionals/stakeholders to urban planning and development who have technical disposition and experience on the subject matter with respect to the cities under investigation, was conducted in order to corroborate findings from the surveys.

Review of Control Instruments
The  has been a source of concern and has been seen as a failure of planning and implementation. At Gishiri Village by Aso Hill Abuja, a housing estate as seen in (Figure 9a) was meant to resettle indigenous communities, but the residents refused to move in as they could not afford the cost of such houses neither were they willing to abandon the peasant simple lifestyles in their abode with a more tenable sense of community (see bottom section of Figure 9b).

Interviews
In an interview with a resident of Kaduna, Mr Bala, who is a professional architect and has lived in Kaduna for over 30 years bore his mind thus:

Findings
From the review of literature, and surveys, the following could be deduced:

Population
Urban population is made up of rich and poor, but perhaps a higher proportion of poor people.
In Nigeria, the proportion of poor people was estimated to be 69% in 2010 according to the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS, 2012). In the urban areas, it may be between 25 and 35%. Population is usually used to rank cities and growth rate. However, it is obvious that in many Nigerian cities as in African cities, the urban structure is not built for productive purpose but for administrative purpose and extraction of economic surplus. Thus, there lies weak economic base, unconducive for optimal growth. Hence, categorizing the cities using only population as an index therefore may not serve a

The side-by-side Juxta-positioning of planned and unplanned communities
As revealed by the study, the existence of both planned and unplanned sections in the same area is a common phenomenon in Lagos, Kaduna and Abuja. Clearly, there is an economic reality to this.  Officials need to ensure that such situation do not arise in future cities and deliberate effort (political and financial) should be made to reclaim the beauty and aesthetics of existing cities.

Lopsided Urban Provision Within the Same City
Lopsided development and contrasted infrastructural provision that seem to ignore a part of the same city, was noticed in Kaduna. Such unwholesome trend risks retarding the overall objective of city planning in addition to aiding the embers of disintegration among residents.

Infrastructure Profile
The African Development Bank Group has identified that inadequacy of infrastructure for meeting basic human needs and growth is undermining the economic performance of almost every Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 24 November 2020 doi:10.20944/preprints202011.0600.v1 city or town in Africa. Infrastructure has been shown to be the bedrock of development. The provision of roads, housing, utilities and public buildings is indispensable for the growth and development of the urban areas. Of concern to the study findings is the gap of sustainability plan in dealing with infrastructure. The study revealed that the dynamics of change are not sufficiently taken into account with respect to infrastructural provision which is consequently soon overstretched for the same reason. Adama (2018) recently pointed out some of the challenges faced in engaging in funding mega structures and projects in Lagos, Nigeria. Of note was the observation of how such projects are fractured by certain beliefs and indulgences that supports social exclusion and unabated inequalities and the lack of pro-poor considerations.

Environmental Management
While Lagos and Abuja seem to point to modern system of environmental sanitation and management including waste recycling, Kaduna is still lagging behind. Consequently, the practice of waste management and waste disposal still leaves much to be desired as fermented and decayed waste litters some parts of the city often at the peril of its supposed aesthetics. In Lagos, the possibility of expanding many roads is slim as any attempt to divert road traffic to allow for work would be catastrophic in view of the heavy volume of urban traffic. Housing deficit is largely responsible for the emergence of poor urban areas or slums (Qurix, 2017;Ozo, 2009). This notwithstanding, the extent to which planning has made things much better in Lagos than they would have been, cannot be overemphasized. Despite the effort made in Lagos towards an efficient environmental management, there are a lot of issues that points to unsustainability, the government needs to do more as was recently reported (Onuminya and Ize, 2017). The FCT is doing all she can to avoid the pitfalls of other cities in Nigeria in ensuring strict compliance to environmental management and particular attention to municipal waste management. However, more needs to be done as there are observed littering of some streets where citizens struggle with improperly disposed waste (Kadafa, 2016). There is need for these Nigeria cities to fully embrace modern waste management practices that converts these   Figure 16). Also, of grave concern in Kaduna is the sharp contrast in terms of road infrastructure as an important index of urban development between different parts of the same city ( Figure 16). It is hard to marry the well-developed road networks in Kaduna North and the un tarred roads of say Kaduna South or Chikun LGAs.

Traffic Management
There is hardly any Nigerian urban area that does not suffer from traffic congestion particularly during morning rush hours when work begins and at the close of business day. The situation was common only in Lagos up to the late 1990s, forcing workers to wake up as early as 4am and return home as late as 11pm. Under this situation, productivity is low as the worker is bothered about logistics rather than the work. Similarly, vehicles frequently breakdown along traffic as a result of poor vehicle regulatory compliance (Road worthiness). Hold ups known as "go slow" or traffic jams are regular leading to high cost of vehicle maintenance ( Figure 22). There is poor adherence to traffic rules and more worrisome is the unreliable nature of traffic controls because of frequent power outages. Crime is naturally invited along the way as "Area boys" "yan sarasuka", yandaba" depending on the city, harass helpless motorist along the way. Besides, hawkers make brisk business along major traffic routes and further compound the traffic situation. Observation along major streets of Ikeja, on weekdays also reveals this scenario. Similarly, in Kaduna, North-South traffic situation between 7am to 10am and 4pm -8pm has remained a thing of concern. Also worthy of note in Kaduna is the recurrent phenomenon of flood within the city every year that hampers free flow of traffic particularly during peak times. It would appear that the authorities have not done enough to stem the tide of flooding often occasioned by poor drainage system in the city. provided for and road shoulders are unavailable. This has led to several accidents. These walkways and shoulders should be part of future road designs and construction.

Architecture
Urban architecture is usually a product of the collective architectural experience of a people

Ranking of Cities
It is important to develop city rankings based not just on population but inclusive of infrastructure, security, socio economic activities, crime and poverty levels. Development control mechanisms and the stakeholders who man them should be interested in the way a development index is given to a city. For the same reason, they should integrate these indices in the ranking of cities so as to control the desired objectives. This could help in determining the challenges of resources, and monitoring of the quality of life of urban inhabitants. Key components to be evaluated should include: 1. City size and physical planning 2. City size and health (mortality rate, incidence of disease etc.).

3.
City size and public safety (crime rates, accident rates, fire hazards etc.).

4.
City size and municipal efficiency.

5.
City size and education expenditure.

6.
City size and cost of living.

Mega Cities Vs. Satellite Cities
It has been pointed out that lack of conscious efforts to plan and develop the urban areas lead to formulation of slums and poor environment. However, governments are now making deliberate efforts to expand cities through the development of satellite cities such as Millennium City for Kaduna; Karshi and Kuje for Abuja, and the formation of a Mega Cities in Lagos such as Banana Island as well as Lekki Peninsula among others. It is believed that the development of satellite cities has high potentials in dispersing inhabitants from the city center and should be seen as a good approach. On the other hand, the development of mega cities is likely to have challenges of harmonization of the dynamics of different cities, planning of infrastructure and governance.
However, it has the potential of generating urban renewal amongst cities that have been robbed of their aesthetics.

Indigenous Settlements vs Cities
In parts of the studied cities, particularly Abuja (FCT), there exists the phenomenon of indigenous settlements that provide a kind of economic escape from the expensive city life. They are composed of new but unplanned buildings that offer shelter to the majority of workforce that service the city. Houses are interlocked with no defined paths and there is the complete absence of drainage system and solid waste management. The structures look better than those in blighted areas ( Figure   5 and Figure 14) already discussed but the official basis of their existence is unfounded. repositioning the state of urban development to meet international best practices which is part of the sustainable development goals.

Recommendations
Given the multifarious problems already identified in the current study areas, it would appear as though the problems of urban development are insurmountable. This is in view of the challenges associated with urban development as highlighted as well as the continued surge in urban population. However, certain bold steps are required by both state and non-state actors to establish structures and appraise existing control mechanisms in order to translate our cities into the desired urban centers they were intended to be. From the foregoing, a comprehensive framework of reengineering that would overhaul the entire urban landscape will be a rational starting point for any Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 24 November 2020 doi:10.20944/preprints202011.0600.v1 meaningful intervention. Nevertheless, it is needful to state the need for the development of the city centers with massive infrastructure for sustainable development that keeps urban decay in check.
The following is therefore recommended thus;